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1
Ann Gibbons, ‘Food for Thought: Did the First Cooked Meals Help Fuel the Dramatic Evolutionary Expansion of the Human Brain?’, Science 316:5831 (2007), 1558-1560.
2
Robin Dunbar, Groomingy Gossipy and the Evolution of Language (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998).
3
Michael L. Wilson and Richard W. Wrangham, ‘Intergroup Relations in Chimpanzees’, Annual Review of Anthropology 32 (2003), 363-392; M. McFarland Symington, ‘Fission-Fusion Social Organization in Ateles and Pan у International Journal of Primatologyy 11:1 (1990), 49; Colin A. Chapman and Lauren J. Chapman, ‘Determinants of Groups Size in Primates: The Importance of Travel Costs’, in On the Move: How and Why Animals Travel in Groups, ed. Sue Boinsky and Paul A. Garber (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 26.
4
Dunbar, Groomingy Gossip, and the Evolution of Languagey 69-79; Leslie C. Aiello and R. I. M. Dunbar, ‘Neocortex Size, Group Size, and the Evolution of Language’, Current Anthropology 34:2 (1993), 189. Критику этого подхода см.: Christopher McCarthy et al., ‘Comparing Two Methods for Estimating Network Size’, Human Organization 60:1 (2001), 32; R. A. Hill and R. I. M. Dunbar, ‘Social Network Size in Humans’, Human Nature 14:1 (2003), 65.
5
Yvette Taborin, ‘Shells of the French Aurignacian and Perigordian’, in Before Lascaux: The Complete Record of the Early Upper Paleolithic, ed. Heidi Knecht, Anne Pike-Тау and Randall White (Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1993), 211-228.
6
G.R. Summerhayes, ‘Application of PIXE-PIGME to Archaeological Analysis of Changing Patterns of Obsidian Use in West New Britain, Papua New Guinea’, in Archaeological Obsidian Studies: Method and Theory, ed. Steven M. Shackley (New York: Plenum Press, 1998), 129-158.
7
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8
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9
Fekri A. Hassan, Demographic Archaeology (New York: Academic Press, 1981), 196-199; Lewis Robert Binford, Constructing Frames of Reference: An Analytical Method for Archaeological Theory Building Using Hunter Gatherer and Environmental Data Sets (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 143.
10
Paul Seabright, The Company of Strangers: A Natural History of Economic Life (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), 261 n. 2; M. Henneberg and M. Steyn, ‘Trends in Cranial Capacity and Cranial Index in Subsaharan Africa During the Holocene’, American Journal of Human Biology 5:4 (1993): 473-479.
11
Nicholas G. Blurton Jones et al., ‘Antiquity of Postreproductive Life: Are There Modern Impact on Hunter-Gatherer Postreproductive Life Spans?’, American Journal of Human Biology 14 (2002), 184-205.
12
Kim Hill and A. Magdalena Hurtado, Ache Life History: The Ecology and Demography of a Foraging People (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1996), 164,236.
13
Hill and Hurtado, Ache Life History, 78.
14
Vincenzo Formicola and Alexandra P. Buzhilova, ‘Double Child Burial from Sunghir (Russia): Pathology and Inferences for Upper Paleolithic Funerary Practices’, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 124:3 (2004), 189-198; Giacomo Giacobin£ ‘Richness and Diversity of Burial Rituals in the Upper Paleolithic’, Diogenes 54:2 (2007), 19-39.
15
I.J.N. Thorpe, ‘Anthropology, Archaeology, and the Origin of Warfare’, World Archaology 35:1 (2003), 145-165; Raymond C. Kelly, Warless Societies and the Origin of War (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000); Azar Gat, War in Human Civilization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006); Lawrence H. Keeley, War before Civilization: The Myth of the Peaceful Savage (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996); Slavomil Vend, ‘Stone Age Warfare’, in Ancient Warfare: Archaeological Perspectives, ed. John Carman and Anthony Harding (Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 1999), 57-73.
16
James F. O’Connel and Jim Allen, ‘Pre-LGM Sahul (Pleistocene Australia — New Guinea) and the Archeology of Early Modern Humans’, in Rethinking the Human Revolution: New Behavioural and Biological Perspectives on the Origin and Dispersal of Modern Humans, ed. Paul Mellars, Ofer Bar- Yosef, Katie Boyle (Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2007), 395-410; James F. O’Connel and Jim Allen, ‘When Did Humans First Arrived in Grater Australia and Why Is It Important to Know?’, Evolutionary Anthropology 6:4 (1998), 132-146; James E O’Connel and Jim Allen, ‘Dating the Colonization of Sahul (Pleistocene Australia — New Guinea): A Review of Recent Research’, Journal of Radiological Science 31:6 (2004), 835-853; Jon M. Erlandson, ‘Anatomically Modern Humans, Maritime Voyaging, and the Pleistocene Colonization of the Americas’, in The first Americans: the Pleistocene Colonization of the New World, ed. Nina G. Jablonski (San Francisco: University of California Press, 2002), 59-60, 63-64; Jon M. Erlandson and Torben C. Rick, Archeology Meets Marine Ecology: The Antiquity of Maritime Cultures and Human Impacts on Marine Fisheries and Ecosystems’, Annual Review of Marine Science 2 (2010), 231— 251; Atholl Anderson, ‘Slow Boats from China: Issues in the Prehistory of Indo-China Seafaring’, Modern Quaternary Research in Southeast Asia, 16 (2000), 13-50; Robert G. Bednarik, ‘Maritime Navigation in the Lower and Middle Paleolithic’, Earth and Planetary Sciences 328 (1999), 559-560; Robert G. Bednarik, ‘Seafaring in the Pleistocene’, Cambridge Archaeological Journal 13:1 (2003), 41-66.
17
Timothy F. Flannery, The Future Eaters: An Ecological History of the Australasian Lands and Peoples (Port Melbourne, Vic.: Reed Books Australia, 1994); Anthony D. Barnosky et al., ‘Assessing the Causes of Late Pleistocene Extinctions on the Continents’, Science 306:5693 (2004): 70- 75; Bary W. Brook and David M. J. S. Bowman, ‘The Uncertain Blitzkrieg of Pleistocene Megafauna’, Journal of Biogeography 31:4 (2004), 517-523; Gifford H. Miller et al., ‘Ecosystem Collapse in Pleistocene Australia and a Human Role in Megafaunal Extinction’, Science 309:5732 (2005), 287-290; Richard G. Roberts et al., ‘New Ages for the Last Australian Megafauna: Continent Wide Extinction about 46,000 Years Ago’, Science 292:5523(2001), 1888-1892
18
Stephen Wroe and Judith Field, ‘A Review of Evidence for a Human Role in the Extinction of Australian Megafauna and an Alternative Explanation, Quaternary Science Reviews 25:21-22 (2006), 2692-2703; Barry W. Brooks et al., ‘Would the Australian Megafauna Have Become Extinct If Humans Had Never Colonised the Continent? Comments on “A Review of the Evidence for a Human Role in the Extinction of Australian Megafauna and an Alternative Explanation” by S. Wroe and J. Field’, Quaternary Science Reviews 26: 3-4 (2007), 560-564; Chris S. M. Turney et al., ‘Late-Surviving Megafauna in Tasmania, Australia, Implicate Human Involvement in their Extinction, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105:34 (2008), 12150-12153.
19
John Alroy, ‘A Multispecies Overkill Simulation of the End-Pleistocene Megafaunal Mass Extinction, Science, 292:5523 (2001), 1893-1896; O’Connel and Allen, ‘Pre-LGM Sahul’, 400-401.
20
L.H. Keeley, ‘Proto-Agricultural Practices Among Hunter-Gatherers: A Cross-Cultural Survey’, in Last Hunters, First Farmers: New Perspectives on the Prehistoric Transition to Agriculture, ed. T. Douglas Price and Anne Birgitte Gebauer (Santa Fe, N.M.: School of American Research Press, 1995), 243-272; R. Jones, ‘Firestick Farming’, Australian Natural History 16 (1969), 224-228.
21
David J. Meltzer, First Peoples in a New World: Colonizing Ice Age America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009).
22
Paul L. Koch and Anthony D. Barnosky, ‘Late Quaternary Extinctions: State of the Debate, The Annual Review of Ecology Evolution, and Systematics 37 (2006), 215-250; Anthony D. Barnosky et al., Assessing the Causes of Late Pleistocene Extinctions on the Continents’, 70-75.
23
Azar Gat, War in Human Civilization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 130-131.
24
Katherine A. Spielmann, A Review: Dietary Restriction on Hunter- Gatherer Women and the Implications for Fertility and Infant Mortality’, Human Ecology 17:3 (1989), 321-345. See also: Bruce Winterhalder and Eric Alder Smith, Analyzing Adaptive Strategies: Human Behavioral Ecology at Twenty Five’, Evolutionary Anthropology 9:2 (2000), 51-72.
25
Alain Bideau, Bertrand Desjardins and Hector Perez-Brignoli (eds.), Infant and Child Mortality in tde Past (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997); Edward Anthony Wrigley et al., English Population History from Family Reconstitution, 1580-1837 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 295-296, 303.
26
Manfred Heun et al., ‘Site of Einkorn Wheat Domestication Identified by DNA Fingerprints’, Science 278:5341 (1997), 1312-1314.
27
Charles Patterson, Eternal Treblinka: Our Treatment of Animals and the Holocaust (New York: Lantern Books, 2002), 9-10; Peter J. Ucko and G.W. Dimbleby (ed.), The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals (London: Duckworth, 1969), 259.
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Avi Pinkas (ed.), Farmyard Animals in Israel — Researchy Humanism and Activity (Rishon Le-Ziyyon: The Association for Farmyard Animals, 2009 [Hebrew]), 169-199; “Milk Production — the Cow” [Hebrew], The Dairy Council, accessed March 22, 2012, http://www.milk.org.il/cgi-webaxy/sal/Sal.pl?lang=he&ID=645657_milk&act=show&dbid=katavot&dataid=cow.htm.
29
Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard, The Nuer: A Description of the Modes of Livelihood and Political Institutions of a Nilotic People (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969); E.C. Amoroso and P.A. Jewell, ‘The Exploitation of the Milk-Ejection Reflex by Primitive People’, in Man and Cattle: Proceedings of the Symposium on Domestication at the Royal Anthropological Institute, 24-26 May 1960, ed. A.E. Mourant and F.E. Zeuner (London: The Royal Anthropological Institute, 1963), 129-134.
30
Johannes Nicolaisen, Ecology and Culture of the Pastoral Tuareg (Copenhagen: National Museum, 1963), 63.
31
Angus Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 2 (Paris: Development Centre of the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development, 2006), 636; “Historical Estimates of World Population”, U.S. Census Bureau, accessed December 10, 2010, http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/worldhis. html.
32
Robert B. Mark, The Origins of the Modern World: A Global and Ecological Narrative (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2002), 24.
33
Raymond Westbrook, ‘Old Babylonian Period’, in A History of Ancient Near Eastern Lawy vol. I, ed. Raymond Westbrook (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 361-430; Martha T. Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor, 2nd ed. (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997), 71-142; M. E. J. Richardson, Hammurabis Laws: Text, Translation and Glossary (London: T&T Clark International, 2000).
34
Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia, 76.
35
Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia, 121.
36
Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia, 122-123.
37
Roth, Law Collections, 133-134.
38
Constance Brittaine Bouchard, Strong of Body, Brave and Noble: Chivalry and Society in Medieval France (New York: Cornell University Press, 1998), 99; Mary Martin McLaughlin, ‘Survivors and Surrogates: Children and Parents from the Ninth to Thirteenth Centuries’, in Medieval Families: Perspectives on Marriage, Household and Children, ed. Carol Neel (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004), 81 n. 81; Lise E. Hull, Britain s Medieval Castles (Westport: Praeger, 2006), 144.
39
Andrew Robinson, The Story of Writing (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1995), 63; Hans J. Nissen, Peter Damerow and Robert K. Englung, Archaic Bookkeeping: Writing and Techniques of Economic Administration in the Ancient Near East (Chicago, London: The University of Chicago Press, 1993), 36.
40
Marcia and Robert Ascher, Mathematics of the Incas- Code of the Quipu (New York: Dover Publications, 1981).
41
Gary Urton. Signs of the Inka Khipu (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2003); Galen Brokaw. A History of the Khipu (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
42
Stephen D. Houston (ed.), The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 222.
43
Sheldon Pollock, ‘Axialism and Empire’, in Axial Civilizations and World History, ed. Johann P. Arnason, S. N. Eisenstadt and Bjorn Wittrock (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 397-451
44
Harold M. Tanner, China: A History (Indianapolis: Hackett, Pub. Co., 2009), 34.
45
Ramesh Chandra, Identity and Genesis of Caste System in India (Delhi: Kalpaz Publications, 2005); Michael Bamshad et al., ‘Genetic Evidence on the Origins of Indian Caste Population, Genome Research 11 (2001): 904- 1004; Susan Bayly, Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
46
Houston, First Writing, 196.
47
The Secretary-General, United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the In-depth Study on All Forms of Violence Against Women, delivered to the General Assembly, U.N. Doc. А/16/122/Add. 1 (July 6,2006), 89.
48
Sue Blundell, Women in Ancient Greece (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), 113-129, 132-133.
49
Francisco Lopez de Gomara, Historia de la Conquista de Mexico, vol. 1, ed. D. Joaquin Ramirez Cabanes (Mexico City: Editorial Pedro Robredo, 1943), 106.
50
Andrew M. Watson, ‘Back to Gold — and Silver, Economic History Review 20:1 (1967), 11-12; Jasim Alubudi, Repertorio Bibliografico del Islam (Madrid: Vision Libros, 2003), 194.
51
Watson, ‘Back to Gold — and Silver’, 17-18.
52
David Graeber, Debt: The First 5,000 Years (Brooklyn, N.Y.: Melville House, 2011).
53
Glyn Davies, A History of Money: from Ancient Times to the Present Day (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1994), 15.
54
Szymon Laks, Music of Another World, trans. Chester A. Kisiel (Evanston, 111.: Northwestern University Press, 1989), 88-89. «Рынок» Освенцима был ограничен определенными категориями заключенных, и условия резко менялись в зависимости от времени.
55
Niall Ferguson, The Ascent of Money (New York: The Penguin Press, 2008), 4.
56
Сведения о ячменных деньгах я почерпнул из неопубликованной диссертации: Refael Benvenisti, Economic Institutions of Ancient Assyrian Trade in the Twentieth to Eighteenth Centuries BC (Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, 2011). См. также Norman Yoffee, ‘The Economy of Ancient Western Asia’, in Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, vol. 1, ed. J.M. Sasson (New York: C. Scribners Sons, 1995), 1387-1399; R. К. Englund, ‘Proto-Cuneiform Account-Books and Journals’, in Creating Economic Order: Record-keepingy Standardization, and the Development of Accounting in the Ancient Near East, ed. Michael Hudson and Cornelia Wunsch (Bethesda, MD: CDL Press, 2004), 21-46; Marvin A. Powell, ‘A Contribution to the History of Money in Mesopotamia prior to the Invention of Coinage, in Festschrift Lubor MatouS, ed. B. Hruska and G. Komoroczy (Budapest: Eotvos Lorand Tudomanyegyetem, 1978), 211— 243; Marvin A. Powell, ‘Money in Mesopotamia, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 39:3 (1996), 224-242; John F. Robertson, ‘The Social and Economic Organization of Ancient Mesopotamian Temples’, in Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, vol. 1, ed. Sasson, 443-500; M. Silver, ‘Modern Ancients’, in Commerce and Monetary Systems in the Ancient World: Means of Transmission and Cultural Interaction, ed. R. Rollinger and U. Christoph (Stuttgart: Steiner, 2004), 65-87; Daniel C. Snell, ‘Methods of Exchange and Coinage in Ancient Western Asia, in Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, vol. 1, ed. Sasson, 1487-1497.
57
Nahum Megged, The Aztecs (Tel Aviv: Dvir, 1999 [Hebrew]), 103.
58
Тацит. Агрикола, гл. XXX. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1958), pp. 220-221.
59
A. Fienup-Riordan, The Nelson Island Eskimo: Social Structure and Ritual Distribution (Anchorage: Alaska Pacific University Press, 1983), p. 10.
60
Yuri Pines, ‘Nation States, Globalization and a United Empire — the Chinese Experience (third to fifth centuries BC)’, Historia 15 (1995), 54 [Hebrew].
61
Alexander Yakobson, ‘Us and Them: Empire, Memory and Identity in Claudius’ Speech on Bringing Gauls into the Roman Senate’, in On Memory: An Interdisciplinary Approach, ed. Doron Mendels (Oxford: Peter Land, 2007), 23-24.
62
W.H.C. Frend, Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church (Cambridge: James Clarke & Co., 2008), 536-537.
63
Robert Jean Knecht, The Rise and Fall of Renaissance France, 1483- 1610 (London: Fontana Press, 1996), 424.
64
Marie Harm and Hermann Wiehle, Lebenskunde fuer Mittelschulen — Fuenfter Teil. Klasse 5 fuer Jungen (Halle: Hermann Schroedel Verlag, 1942), 152-157.
65
Susan Blackmore, The Meme Machine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).
66
David Christian, Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 344-345; Angus Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 2 (Paris: Development Centre of the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development, 2001), 636; ‘Historical Estimates of World Population’, U.S. Census Bureau, accessed December 10, 2010, http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/worldhis.html.
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Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 1, 261.
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69
Christian, Maps of Time, 141.
70
Самое крупное современное грузовое судно перевозит около 100 тысяч тонн. В 1470 году совокупный тоннаж мирового торгового флота составлял 730 тысяч тонн (Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 1,97).
71
Крупнейший мировой банк — Королевский банк Шотландии — на 2007 год хранил депозиты общей стоимостью 1,3 триллиона долларов. Это впятеро больше совокупного мирового производства за 1500 год. См. ‘Annual Report and Accounts 2008’, The Royal Bank of Scotland, 35, accessed December 10,2010, http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/RBS/626570033x0x278481/eb7a003a-5c9b-41ef-bad3-81fb98a6c823/RBS_GRA_2008_09_03_09.pdf.
72
Ferguson, Ascent of Money, 185-198.
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Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 1,31; Wrigley, English Population History, 295; Christian, Maps of Time, 450, 452; ‘World Health Statistic Report 2009’, 35-45, World Health Organization, accessed December 10, 2010 http://www.who.int/whosis/whostat/EN_WHS09_Full.pdf.
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Wrigley, English Population History, 296.
76
Там же.
77
Michael Prestwich, Edward I (Berkley: University of California Press, 1988), 125-126.
78
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James Cook, The Explorations of Captain James Cook in the Pacific, as Told by Selections of his Own Journals 1768-1779, ed. Archibald Grenfell Price (New York: Dover Publications, 1971), 16-17; Gananath Obeyesekere, The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the Pacific (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), 5; J.C. Beaglehole, ed., The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), 588.
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Mark, Origins of the Modern World, 81.
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84
Mark, The Origins of the Modern World, 46.
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Kirkpatrik Sale, Christopher Columbus and the Conquest of Paradise (London: Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 2006), 7-13.
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Edward M. Spiers, The Army and Society: 1815-1914 (London: Longman, 1980), 121; Robin Moore, ‘Imperial India, 1858-1914’, in The Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century; vol. 3, ed. Andrew Porter (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 442.
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89
Этот пример с пекарней не слишком точен по расчетам. Поскольку банк вправе одалживать $10 на каждый имеющийся у него $1, банки могут выдавать предпринимателям по $909 тысяч из миллиона, резервируя $91 тысячу. Но, чтобы облегчить жизнь читателям, я предпочел круглые числа. Тем более банки не так уж и строго придерживаются этих правил.
90
Carl Trocki, Opium, Empire and the Global Political Economy (New York: Routledge, 1999), 91.
91
Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja, The Congo from Leopold to Kabila: A Peoples History (London: Zed Books, 2002), 22.
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99
Harry Harlow and Robert Zimmermann, ‘Affectional Responses in the Infant Monkey’, Science 130: 3373 (1959), 421-432; Harry Harlow, ‘The Nature of Love’, American Psychologist 13 (1958), 673-685; Laurens D. Young et al., ‘Early stress and later response to seprate in rhesus monkeys’, American Journal of Psychiatry 130:4 (1973), 400-405; K. D. Broad, J. P. Curley and E. B. Keverne, ‘Mother-infant bonding and the evolution of mammalian social relationships’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Soceity В 361:1476 (2006), 2199-2214; Florent Pittet et al., ‘Effects of maternal experience on fearfulness and maternal behaviour in a precocial bird’, Animal Behavior (March 2013), In Press-available online at: http://www.sciehcedirect.com/ science/article/pii/S0003347213000547.
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103
Подробное обсуждение беспрецедентного мира последних десятилетий см. в особенности Steven Pinker, The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined (New York: Viking, 2011); Joshua S. Goldstein, Winning the War on War: The Decline of Armed Conflict Worldwide (New York, N.Y.: Dutton, 2011); Gat, War in Human Civilization.
104
‘World Report on Violence and Health: Summary, Geneva 2002’, World Health Organization, accessed December 10,2010, http://www.who. int/whr/2001/en/whr0 l_annex_en.pdf. Уровень смертности в прежние эпохи см. Lawrence Н. Keeley, War before Civilization: The Myth of the Peaceful Savage (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).
105
‘World Health Report, 2004’, World Health Organization, 124, accessed 10 December, 2010, http://www. who.int/whr/2004/en/report04_en.pdf.
106
Raymond C. Kelly, Warless Societies and the Origin of War (Ann Arbjjr: University of Michigan Press, 2000), 21. See also Gat, War in Human Civilization, 129-131; Keeley, War before Civilization.
107
Manuel Eisner, ‘Modernization, Self-Control and Lethal Violence’, British Journal of Criminology 41:4 (2001), 618-638; Manuel Eisner, ‘Long- Term Historical Trends in Violent Crime’, Crime and Justice: A Review of Research 30 (2003), 83-142; ‘World Report on Violence and Health: Summary, Geneva 2002’, World Health Organization, accessed December 10, 2010, http://www.who.int/whr/2001/en/whr01_annex_en.pdf; ‘World Health Report, 2004’, World Health Organization, 124, accessed 10 December, 2010, http://www. who.int/whr/2004/en/report04_en.pdf.
108
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