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1
Frank L. Schmidt and John Hunter, «General Mental Ability in the World of Work: Occupational Attainment and Job Performance», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 86 (2004): 162–173.
2
David C. Geary, «Efficiency of Mitochondrial Functioning as the Fundamental Biological Mechanism of General Intelligence (G)», Psychological Review 15 (2018): 1028–1050.
3
Neel Burton, «What Is Intelligence?», Psychology Today, November 28, 2018, www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/hide-and-seek/201811/what-is-intelligence; Charles Stangor and Jennifer Walinga, Introduction to Psychology (Victoria, BC: BCcampus, 2014); Frank L. Schmidt, «The Role of Cognitive Ability and Job Performance: Why There Cannot Be a Debate», Human Performance 15 (2002): 187–210.
4
A Systematic Approach to the GRE (New York: Kaplan, 1999).
5
Ludy T. Benjamin Jr., Timothy A. Cavell, and William R. Shallenberger III, «Staying with Initial Answers on Objective Tests: Is It a Myth?», Teaching of Psychology 11 (1984): 133–141.
6
Justin Kruger, Derrick Wirtz, and Dale T. Miller, «Counterfactual Thinking and the First Instinct Fallacy», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 88 (2005): 725–735.
7
Yongnam Kim, «Apples to Oranges: Causal Effects of Answer Changing in Multiple-Choice Exams», arXiv:1808.10577v4, last revised October 14, 2019, arxiv.org/abs/1808.10577.
8
Justin J. Couchman et al., «The Instinct Fallacy: The Metacognition of Answering and Revising during College Exams», Metacognition and Learning 11 (2016): 171–185.
9
Charles M. Slem, «The Effects of an Educational Intervention on Answer Changing Behavior», Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, August 1985, eric.ed.gov/?id=ED266395.
10
Susan T. Fiske and Shelley E. Taylor, Social Cognition: From Brains to Culture, 2nd ed. (Los Angeles: Sage, 2013).
11
Arie W. Kruglanski and Donna M. Webster, «Motivated Closing of the Mind: ‘Seizing’ and ‘Freezing’», Psychological Review 103 (1996): 263–283.
12
James Fallows, «The Boiled-Frog Myth: Stop the Lying Now!», The Atlantic, September 16, 2006, www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2006/09/the-boiled-frog-myth-stop-the-lying-now/7446/.
13
Norman Maclean, Young Men and Fire, 25th anniversary ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017); см. также www.nifc.gov/safety/mann_gulch/event_timeline/event6.htm.
14
Barry M. Staw, Lance E. Sandelands, and Jane E. Dutton, «Threat Rigidity Effects in Organizational Behavior: A Multilevel Analysis», Administrative Science Quarterly 26 (1981): 501–524; Karl E. Weick, «The Collapse of SenseMaking in Organizations: The Mann Gulch Disaster», Administrative Science Quarterly 38 (1993): 628–52.
15
Ted Putnam, «Findings from the Wildland Firefighters Human Factors Workshop», United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Technology & Development Program, November 1995.
16
John N. Maclean, Fire on the Mountain: The True Story of the South Canyon Fire (New York: HarperPerennial, 2009).
17
Ted Putnam, «Analysis of Escape Efforts and Personal Protective Equipment on the South Canyon Fire», Wildfire 4 (1995): 34–39.
18
Ted Putnam, «The Collapse of Decision Making and Organizational Structure on Storm King Mountain», Wildfire 4 (1995): 40–45.
19
Report of the South Canyon Fire Accident Investigation Team, August 17, 1994.
20
Karl E. Weick, «Drop Your Tools: An Allegory for Organizational Studies», Administrative Science Quarterly 41 (1996): 301–13.
21
Elizabeth Widdicombe, «Prefrosh E-group Connected Class of ’03», Harvard Crimson, June 5, 2003, www.thecrimson.com/article/2003/6/5/prefrosh-e-group-connected-class-of-03; Scott A. Golder, «Re: ‘Alone in Annenberg? First-Years Take Heart’», Harvard Crimson, September 17, 1999, www.thecrimson.com/article/1999/9/17/letters-begroup-an-important-link-connecting.
22
Black Lives Matter: Nate Cohn and Kevin Quealy, «How Public Opinion Has Moved on Black Lives Matter», New York Times, June 10, 2020, www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/06/10/upshot/black-lives-matter-attitudes.html.
23
Kathryn Schulz, «The Story That Tore Through the Trees», New York Magazine, September 9, 2014, nymag.com/arts/books/features/mann-gulch-norman-maclean-2014-9/index.html.
24
George Bernard Shaw, Everybody’s Political What’s What? (London: Constable, 1944).
25
Jacquie McNish and Sean Silcoff, Losing the Signal: The Untold Story behind the Extraordinary Rise and Spectacular Fall of BlackBerry (New York: Flatiron Books, 2015).
26
«100 Fastest-Growing Companies», CNN Money, August 31, 2009, money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortunefastestgrowing/2009/snapshots/1.html.
27
Richard Alleyne, «Welcome to the Information Age—174 Newspapers a Day», Daily Telegraph, February 11, 2011, www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/8316534/Welcome-to-the-information-age-174-newspapers-a-day.html.
28
Peter Densen, «Challenges and Opportunities Facing Medical Education», Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association 122 (2011): 48–58.
29
Joshua J. Clarkson, Zakary L. Tormala, and Christopher Leone, «A Self-Validation Perspective on the Mere Thought Effect», Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 47 (2011): 449–54.
30
Jamie Barden and Richard E. Petty, «The Mere Perception of Elaboration Creates Attitude Certainty: Exploring the Thoughtfulness Heuristic», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95 (2008): 489–509.
31
W. Ralph Eubanks, «How History and Hollywood Got ‘Cleopatra’ Wrong», NPR, November 1, 2010, www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=130976125.
32
Jason Farago, «T. Rex Like You Haven’t Seen Him: With Feathers», New York Times, March 7, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/03/07/arts/design/t-rex-exhibition-american-museum-of-natural-history.html; Brigit Katz, «T. Rex Was Likely Covered in Scales, Not Feathers», Smithsonian, June 8, 2017, www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/t-rex-skin-was-not-covered-feathers-study-says-180963603.
33
Alix Spiegel and Lulu Miller, «How to Become Batman», Invisibilia, NPR, January 23, 2015, www.npr.org/programs/invisibilia/378577902/how-to-become-batman.
34
Добавлю от себя, что всегда думал, что выражение «поддуть дыма в задницу» [Sterling Haynes, «Special Feature: Tobacco Smoke Enemas», BC Medical Journal 54 (2012): 496–97.] пошло от традиции дарить сигары, чтобы произвести хорошее впечатление. Можете представить мое изумление, когда жена рассказала мне об истинном происхождении этого оборота: в 1700-х утонувших пытались возвращать к жизни, в прямом смысле вдувая им дым в задний проход посредством клизмы. Что это вредно для сердца, стало известно позже.
35
Stephen Greenspan, «Why We Keep Falling for Financial Scams», Wall Street Journal, January 3, 2009, www.wsj.com/articles/SB123093987596650197.
36
Philip E. Tetlock, «Social Functionalist Frameworks for Judgment and Choice: Intuitive Politicians, Theologians, and Prosecutors», Psychological Review 109 (2002): 451–71.
37
Hugo Mercier and Dan Sperber, «Why Do Humans Reason? Arguments from an Argumentative Theory», Behavioral and Brain Sciences 34 (2011): 57–74.
38
Stephen Greenspan, «Fooled by Ponzi (and Madoff): How Bernard Madoff Made Off with My Money», eSkeptic, December 23, 2008, www.skeptic.com/eskeptic/08-12-23/#feature.
39
Greg Griffin, «Scam Expert from CU Expertly Scammed», Denver Post, March 2, 2009, www.denverpost.com/2009/03/02/scam-expert-from-cu-expertly-scammed.
40
George A. Kelly, The Psychology of Personal Constructs, vol. 1, A Theory of Personality (New York: Norton, 1955); Brian R. Little, Who Are You, Really? The Surprising Puzzle of Personality (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2017).
41
Arnaldo Camuffo et al., «A Scientific Approach to Entrepreneurial Decision Making: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial», Management Science 66 (2020): 564–86.
42
Mark Chussil, «Slow Deciders Make Better Strategists», Harvard Business Review, July 8, 2016, hbr.org/2016/07/slow-deciders-make-better-strategists.
43
Walter Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2007).
44
David J. Lick, Adam L. Alter, and Jonathan B. Freeman, «Superior Pattern Detectors Efficiently Learn, Activate, Apply, and Update Social Stereotypes», Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 147 (2018): 209–27.
45
Dan M. Kahan, Ellen Peters, Erica C. Dawson, and Paul Slovic, «Motivated Numeracy and Enlightened Self-Government», Behavioural Public Policy 1 (2017): 54–86.
46
Raymond S. Nickerson, «Confirmation Bias: A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises», Review of General Psychology 2 (1998): 175–220.
47
Ben M. Tappin, Leslie van der Leer, and Ryan T. McKay, «The Heart Trumps the Head: Desirability Bias in Political Belief Revision», Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 146 (2017): 1143–49; Ziva Kunda, «The Case for Motivated Reasoning», Psychological Bulletin 108 (1990): 480–98.
48
Emily Pronin, Daniel Y. Lin, and Lee Ross, «The Bias Blind Spot: Perceptions of Bias in Self versus Others», Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28 (2002): 369–81.
49
Richard F. West, Russell J. Meserve, and Keith E. Stanovich, «Cognitive Sophistication Does Not Attenuate the Bias Blind Spot», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 103 (2012): 506–19.
50
Keith E. Stanovich and Maggie E. Toplak, «The Need for Intellectual Diversity in Psychological Science: Our Own Studies of Actively Open-Minded Thinking as a Case Study», Cognition 187 (2019): 156–66; Jonathan Baron et al., «Why Does the Cognitive Reflection Test (Sometimes) Predict Utilitarian Moral Judgment (and Other Things)?», Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition 4 (2015): 265–84.
51
Я начал не с ответов, а с вопросов о переосмыслении. Я искал новейшие данные рандомизированных контролируемых экспериментов и систематических исследований в реальных условиях. Когда информации не хватало, я организовывал собственные исследовательские проекты. Только сделав выводы из данных, я перешел к поиску примеров для иллюстрации. В идеальном мире любой вывод следует из метаанализа — изучения ряда исследований, в ходе которого ищут закономерности в совокупности данных и проверяют каждую единицу информации. В реальности я выбрал исследования, которые счел наиболее подробными, репрезентативными и дающими почву для размышлений. Иногда я описываю методы исследований, чтобы вы не только поняли, как ученые пришли к определенным выводам, но еще и чтобы вы понаблюдали за ходом их рассуждений. Во многих случаях я обобщил результаты, не вдаваясь в подробности, полагая, что вы учитесь научному переосмыслению, а не собираетесь податься в ученые. Если при упоминании метаанализа вы испытали прилив энтузиазма, возможно, вам стоит задуматься о социальных науках.
52
Neil Stenhouse et al., «The Potential Role of Actively Open-Minded Thinking in Preventing Motivated Reasoning about Controversial Science», Journal of Environmental Psychology 57 (2018): 17–24.
53
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention (New York: HarperCollins, 1996).
54
Donald W. Mackinnon, «The Nature and Nurture of Creative Talent», American Psychologist 17 (1962): 484–495.
55
Dean Keith Simonton, «Presidential IQ, Openness, Intellectual Brilliance, and Leadership: Estimates and Correlations for 42 U.S. Chief Executives», Political Psychology 27 (2006): 511–526.
56
Jane E. Dutton and Robert B. Duncan, «The Creation of Momentum for Change through the Process of Strategic Issue Diagnosis», Strategic Management Journal (May/June 1987): 279–95.
57
Jacquie McNish, «RIM’s Mike Lazaridis Walks Out of BBC Interview», Globe and Mail, April 13, 2011, www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-investor/rims-mike-lazaridis-walks-out-of-bbc-interview/article1322202.
58
Sean Silcoff, Jacquie McNish, and Steve Laurantaye, «How BlackBerry Blew It», Globe and Mail, September 27, 2013, www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/the-inside-story-of-why-blackberry-is-failing/article14563602/.
59
Jonathan S. Geller, «Open Letter to BlackBerry Bosses: Senior RIM Exec Tells All as Company Crumbles Around Him», BGR, June 30, 2011, bgr.com/2011/06/30/open-letter-to-blackberry-bosses-senior-rim-exec-tells-all-as-company-crumbles-around-him.
60
Personal interviews with Tony Fadell, June 1, 2020, and Mike Bell, November 14, 2019; Brian Merchant, The One Device: The Secret History of the iPhone (New York: Little, Brown, 2017).
61
Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man (London: Penguin Classics, 1871/2004).
62
Gabriel Anton, «On the Self-Awareness of Focal Drain Diseases by the Patient in Cortical Blindness and Cortical Deafness», Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten 32 (1899): 86–127.
63
Frederick C. Redlich and Joseph F. Dorsey, «Denial of Blindness by Patients with Cerebral Disease», Archives of Neurology & Psychiatry 53 (1945): 407–17.
64
Charles André, «Seneca and the First Description of Anton Syndrome», Journal of Neuro-Ophthalmology 38 (2018): 511–13.
65
Giuseppe Vallar and Roberta Ronchi, «Anosognosia for Motor and Sensory Deficits after Unilateral Brain Damage: A Review», Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience 24 (2006): 247–257; Howard C. Hughes, Robert Fendrich, and Sarah E. Streeter, «The Diversity of the Human Visual Experience», in Perception and Its Modalities, ed. Dustin Stokes, Moham Matthen, and Stephen Biggs (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015); David Dunning, Self-Insight: Roadblocks and Detours on the Path to Knowing Thyself (New York: Psychology Press, 2005); Costanza Papagno and Giuseppe Vallar, «Anosognosia for Left Hemiplegia: Babinski’s (1914) Cases», in Classic Cases in Neuropsychology, vol. 2, ed. Christopher Code et al. (New York: Psychology Press, 2003); Jiann-Jy Chen et al., «Anton-Babinski Syndrome in an Old Patient: ACase Report and Literature Review», Psychogeriatrics 15 (2015): 58–61; Susan M. McGlynn, «Impaired Awareness of Deficits in a Psychiatric Context: Implications for Rehabilitation», in Metacognition in Educational Theory and Practice, ed. Douglas J. Hacker, John Dunlosky, and Arthur C. Graesser (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 1998).
66
Agence France Presse, «Iceland’s Crisis-Era Central Bank Chief to Run for President», Yahoo! News, May 8, 2016, www.yahoo.com/news/icelands-crisis-era-central-bank-chief-run-president-152717120.html.
67
Samantha C. Paustian-Underdahl, Lisa Slattery Walker, and David J. Woehr, «Gender and Perceptions of Leadership Effectiveness: A Meta-analysis of Contextual Moderators», Journal of Applied Psychology 99 (2014): 1129–45.
68
Mark R. Leary et al., «The Impostor Phenomenon: Self-Perceptions, Reflected Appraisals, and Interpersonal Strategies», Journal of Personality 68 (2000): 725–56; Karina K. L. Mak, Sabina Kleitman, and Maree J. Abbott, «Impostor Phenomenon Measurement Scales: A Systematic Review», Frontiers in Psychology 10 (2019): 671.
69
Improbable, «The 2000 Ig™ Nobel Prize Ceremony», October 5, 2000, www.improbable.com/ig/2000.
70
Justin Kruger and David Dunning, «Unskilled and Unaware of It: How Difficulties in ecognizing One’s Own Incompetence Lead to Inflated Self-Assessments», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77 (1999): 1121–34.
71
John D. Mayer, A. T. Panter, and David R. Caruso, «When People Estimate Their Personal Intelligence Who Is Overconfident? Who Is Accurate?», Journal of Personality (May 19, 2020).
72
Nicholas Bloom, Renata Lemos, Raffaella Sadun, Daniela Scur, and John Van Reenen, «JEEA-FBBVA Lecture 2013: The New Empirical Economics of Management», Journal of the European Economic Association 12 (2014): 835–76, https://doi.org/10.1111/jeea.12094.
73
Менеджеры в США и ряде других стран оценивали себя почти адекватно, но это скорее исключение. В недавнем исследовании англоговорящие подростки из разных стран оценивали свои знания в шестнадцати разделах математики. Три раздела были выдуманные — описательные дроби, правильные числа и сослагательные вычисления, так что сразу было видно, кто профан. В среднем худшие результаты показали белые богатые мальчики из Северной Америки.
74
Xavier Cirera and William F. Maloney, The Innovation Paradox (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 2017); Nicholas Bloom et al., «Management Practices across Firms and Countries», Academy of Management Perspectives 26 (2012): 12–33.
75
Michael P. Hall and Kaitlin T. Raimi, «Is Belief Superiority Justified by Superior Knowledge?», Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 76 (2018): 290–306.
76
Brian Resnick, «Intellectual Humility: The Importance of Knowing You Might Be Wrong», Vox, January 4, 2019, www.vox.com/science-and-health/2019/1/4/17989224/intellectual-humility-explained-psychology-replication.
77
Любимый пример подарила мне Нина Стромингер, однажды посетовав: «Утром звонил папа и рассказывал мне про эффект Даннинга — Крюгера. Как будто знать не знает, что у дочери степень по психологии и, естественно, она в курсе таких вещей. Лучшей иллюстрации этого эффекта и не придумаешь [Nina Strohminger (@NinaStrohminger), January 8, 2019, twitter.com/NinaStrohminger/status/1082651708617039875?s=20.]».
78
John Jerrim, Phil Parker, and Nikki Shure, «Bullshitters. Who Are They and What Do We Know about Their Lives?», IZA Institute of Labor Economics, DP No. 12282, April 2019, ftp.iza.org/dp12282.pdf; Christopher Ingraham, «Rich Guys Are Most Likely to Have No Idea What They’re Talking About, Study Suggests», Washington Post, April 26, 2019, www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/04/26/rich-guys-are-most-likely-have-no-idea-what-theyre-talking-about-study-finds.
79
Mark L. Wolraich, David B. Wilson, and J. Wade White, «The Effect of Sugar on Behavior and Cognition in Children: A Meta-analysis», Journal of the American Medical Association 274 (1995): 1617–1621; see also Konstantinos Mantantzis et al., «Sugar Rush or Sugar Crash? A Meta-analysis of Carbohydrate Effects on Mood», Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 101 (2019): 45–67.
80
Oliver J. Sheldon, David Dunning, and Daniel R. Ames, «Emotionally Unskilled, Unaware, and Uninterested in Learning More: Reactions to Feedback about Deficits in Emotional Intelligence», Journal of Applied Psychology 99 (2014): 125–37.
81
Статистическая оценка эффекта Даннинга — Крюгера — пока спорный вопрос. Однако его существование никто не подвергает сомнению. Противоречия в основном касаются степени его выраженности и момента наступления [Gilles E. Gignac and Marcin Zajenkowski, «The Dunning-Kruger Effect Is (Mostly) a Statistical Artefact: Valid Approaches to Testing the Hypothesis with Individual Differences Data», Intelligence 80 (2020): 101449; Tal Yarkoni, «What the Dunning-Kruger Effect Is and Isn’t», July 7, 2010, www.talyarkoni.org/blog/2010/07/07/what-the-dunning-kruger-effect-is-and-isnt.]. Что интересно, даже при желании адекватно оценить себя сложнее всего наименее компетентным людям. После теста на логическое мышление участникам предлагали 100 долларов за то, что они угадают количество своих правильных ответов (то есть оценят себя скромно), но и тут все показали себя слишком самонадеянными [Joyce Ehrlinger et al., «Why the Unskilled Are Unaware: Further Explorations of (Absent) Self-Insight among the Incompetent», Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 105 (2008): 98–121.]. В среднем участники насчитали на 1,42 больше правильных ответов (из двадцати), чем на самом деле, и наибольшее самомнение проявили те, у кого был наихудший результат.
82
Spencer Greenberg and Seth Stephens-Davidowitz, «You Are Not as Good at Kissing as You Think. But You Are Better at Dancing», New York Times, April 6, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/04/06/opinion/sunday/overconfidence-men-women.html.
83
Carmen Sanchez and David Dunning, «Overconfidence among Beginners: Is a Little Learning a Dangerous Thing?», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 114 (2018): 10–28.
84
John Q. Young et al., «‘July Effect’: Impact of the Academic Year-End Changeover on Patient Outcomes», Annals of Internal Medicine 155 (2011): 309–15; Sarah Kliff, «The July Effect Is Real: New Doctors Really Do Make Hospitals More Dangerous», Vox, July 13, 2014, www.vox.com/2014/7/13/5893653/the-july-effect-is-real-new-doctors-really-do-make-hospitals-more.
85
Roger Boyes, Meltdown Iceland: Lessons on the World Financial Crisis from a Small Bankrupt Island (New York: Bloomsbury, 2009).
86
Boyes, Meltdown Iceland; «Cracks in the Crust», Economist, December 11, 2008, www.economist.com/briefing/2008/12/11/cracks-in-the-crust; Heather Farmbrough, «How Iceland’s Banking Collapse Created an Opportunity», Forbes, December 23, 2019, www.forbes.com/sites/heatherfarmbrough/2019/12/23/how-icelands-banking-collapse-created-an-opportunity/#72693f035e97; «25 People to Blame for the Financial Crisis», Time, February 10, 2009, content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1877351_1877350_1877340,00.html; John L. Campbell and John A. Hall, The Paradox of Vulnerability: States, Nationalism & the Financial Crisis (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017); Robert H. Wade and Silla Sigurgeirsdottir, «Iceland’s Meltdown: The Rise and Fall of International Banking in the North Atlantic», Brazilian Journal of Political Economy 31 (2011): 684–97; Report of the Special Investigation Commission, April 12, 2010, www.rna.is/eldri-nefndir/addragandi-og-orsakir-falls-islensku-bankanna-2008/skyrsla-nefndarinnar/english; Daniel Chartier, The End of Iceland’s Innocence: The Image of Iceland in the Foreign Media during the Financial Crisis (Ottawa, ON: University of Ottawa Press, 2011); «Excerpts: Iceland’s Oddsson», Wall Street Journal, October 17, 2008, www.wsj.com/articles/SB122418335729241577; Geir H. Haarde, «Icelandic Leaders Accused of Negligence», Financial Times, April 12, 2010, www.ft.com/content/82bb2296-4637-11df-8769-00144feab49a; «Report on Iceland’s Banking Collapse Blasts Ex-Officials», Wall Street Journal, April 13, 2010, www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303828304575179722049591754.
87
Tim Urban, «The Thinking Ladder», Wait but Why (blog), September 27, 2019, waitbutwhy.com/2019/09/thinking-ladder.html.
88
Dov Eden, «Means Efficacy: External Sources of General and Specific Subjective Efficacy», in Work otivation in the Context of a Globalizing Economy, ed. Miriam Erez, Uwe Kleinbeck, and Henk Thierry (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2001); Dov Eden et al., «Augmenting Means Efficacy to Boost Performance: Two Field Experiments», Journal of Management 36 (2008): 687–713.
89
Personal interview with Sara Blakely, September 12, 2019; see also Clare O’Connor, «How Sara Blakely of Spanx Turned $5,000 into $1 Billion», Forbes, March 26, 2012, www.forbes.com/global/2012/0326/billionaires-12-feature-united-states-spanx-sara-blakely-american-booty.html; «How Spanx Got Started», Inc., January 20, 2012, www.inc.com/sara-blakely/how-sara-blakley-started-spanx.html.
90
Tenelle Porter, «The Benefits of Admitting When You Don’t Know», Behavioral Scientist, April 30, 2018, behavioralscientist.org/the-benefits-of-admitting-when-you-dont-know.
91
Thomas Gatzka and Benedikt Hell, «Openness and PostSecondary Academic Performance: A Meta-analysis of Facet-, Aspect-, and Dimension-Level Correlations», Journal of Educational Psychology 110 (2018): 355–77.
92
Tenelle Porter et al., «Intellectual Humility Predicts Mastery Behaviors When Learning», Learning and Individual Differences 80 (2020): 101888.
93
Bradley P. Owens, Michael D. Johnson, and Terence R. Mitchell, «Expressed Humility in Organizations: Implications for Performance, Teams, and Leadership», Organization Science 24 (2013): 1517–38.
94
Mark R. Leary et al., «Cognitive and Interpersonal Features of Intellectual Humility», Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 43 (2017): 793–813.
95
Samantha A. Deffler, Mark R. Leary, and Rick H. Hoyle, «Knowing What You Know: Intellectual Humility and Judgments of Recognition Memory», Personality and Individual Differences 96 (2016): 255–59.
96
Bradley P. Owens, Angela S. Wallace, and David A. Waldman, «Leader Narcissism and Follower Outcomes: The Counterbalancing Effect of Leader Humility», Journal of Applied Psychology 100 (2015): 1203–13; Hongyu Zhang et al., «CEO Humility, Narcissism and Firm Innovation: A Paradox Perspective on CEO Traits», Leadership Quarterly 28 (2017): 585–604.
97
Personal interview with Halla Tómasdóttir, February 27, 2019.
98
Jaruwan Sakulku, «The Impostor Phenomenon», International Journal of Behavioral Science 6 (2011): 75–97.
99
Dena M. Bravata et al., «Prevalence, Predictors, and Treatment of Impostor Syndrome: A Systematic Review», Journal of General Internal Medicine 35 (2020): 1252–75.
100
Basima Tewfik, «Workplace Impostor Thoughts: Theoretical Conceptualization, Construct Measurement, and Relationships with Work-Related Outcomes», Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations (2019): 3603.
101
Реакция зависит от пола. В исследовании Басимы с участием специалистов по инвестированию сомнения в себе повышали производительность работы в равной степени среди мужчин и женщин, но мужчины активнее сотрудничали с коллегами. Коллективной деятельностью они компенсировали страх не оправдать ожидания. Женщины больше зависят от уверенности в себе и теряют боевой дух из-за сомнений.
102
Adam M. Grant and Amy Wrzesniewski, «I Won’t Let You Down … or Will I? Core Self-Evaluations, Other-Orientation, Anticipated Guilt and Gratitude, and Job Performance», Journal of Applied Psychology 95 (2010): 108–21.
103
See Christine L. Porath and Thomas S. Bateman, «Self-Regulation: From Goal Orientation to Job Performance», Journal of Applied Psychology 91 (2006): 185–92; Samir Nurmohamed, «The Underdog Effect: When Low Expectations Increase Performance», Academy of Management Journal (July 26, 2020), doi.org/10.5465/amj.2017.0181.
104
See Albert Bandura and Edwin A. Locke, «Negative Self-Efficacy and Goal Effects Revisited», Journal of Applied Psychology 88 (2003): 87–99.
105
Elizabeth J. Krumrei-Mancuso et al., «Links between Intellectual Humility and Acquiring Knowledge», Journal of Positive Psychology 15 (2020): 155–70.
106
Danielle V. Tussing, «Hesitant at the Helm: The Effectiveness-Emergence Paradox of Reluctance to Lead» (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2018).
107
Edwin A. Locke and Gary P. Latham, «Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation: A 35-Year Odyssey», American Psychologist 57 (2002): 705–17; M. Travis Maynard et al., «Modeling Time-Lagged Psychological Empowerment-Performance Relationships», Journal of Applied Psychology 99 (2014): 1244–53; Dana H. Lindsley, Daniel J. Brass, and James B. Thomas, «Efficacy-Performance Spirals: A Multilevel Perspective», Academy of Management Review 20 (1995): 645–78.
108
Frasier, season 2, episode 12, «Roz in the Doghouse», January 3, 1995, NBC.
109
Henry A. Murray, «Studies of Stressful Interpersonal Disputations», American Psychologist 18 (1963): 28–36.
110
Richard G. Adams, «Unabomber», The Atlantic, September 2000, «Letters», www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2000/09/letters/378379.
111
Alston Chase, A Mind for Murder: The Education of the Unabomber and the Origins of Modern Terrorism (New York: W. W. Norton, 2004).
112
Murray S. Davis, «That’s Interesting!: Toward a Phenomenology of Sociology and a Sociology of Phenomenology», Philosophy of Social Science 1 (1971): 309–44.
113
Sarah T. Stewart, «Where Did the Moon Come From? A New Theory», TED Talks, February 2019, www.ted.com/talks/sarah_t_stewart_where_did_the_moon_come_from_a_new_theory.
114
Lesley Evans Ogden, «The Tusks of Narwhals Are Actually Teeth That Are Inside-Out», BBC, October 26, 2015, www.bbc.com/earth/story/20151026-the-tusks-of-narwhals-are-actually-teeth-that-are-inside-out.
115
Anthony G. Greenwald, «The Totalitarian Ego: Fabrication and Revision of Personal History», American Psychologist 35 (1980): 603–18.
116
Richard P. Feynman, «Surely You’re Joking, Mr. Feynman!»: Adventures of a Curious Character (New York: W. W. Norton, 1985), and «Cargo Cult Science», Caltech Commencement, 1974, calteches.library.caltech.edu/51/2/CargoCult.htm.
117
«Text of Unabomber Manifesto», New York Times, May 26, 1996, archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/library/national/unabom-manifesto-1.html.
118
Jonas T. Kaplan, Sarah I. Gimbel, and Sam Harris, «Neural Correlates of Maintaining One’s Political Beliefs in the Face of Counterevidence», Scientific Reports 6 (2016): 39589.
119
Joseph LeDoux, The Emotional Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional Life (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998); Joseph Cesario, David J. Johnson, and Heather L. Eisthen, «Your Brain Is Not an Onion with a Tiny Reptile Inside», Current Directions in Psychological Science 29 (2020): 255–60.
120
Elizabeth Kolbert, «Why Facts Don’t Change Our Minds», New Yorker, February 27, 2017, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/02/27/why-facts-dont-change-our-minds.
121
Eli Pariser, The Filter Bubble: How the New Personalized Web Is Changing What We Read and How We Think (New York: Penguin, 2011).
122
ideas42 Behavioral Summit, New York, NY, October 13, 2016.
123
Personal interview with Daniel Kahneman, June 13, 2019.
124
Я изучал факторы, объясняющие, почему в издательстве путеводителей, где я тоже трудился, одни авторы и редакторы работали лучше других. Производительность не была связана с независимостью, контролем, уверенностью, трудностями, связями, сотрудничеством, конфликтами, поддержкой, самооценкой, стрессом, отзывами, должностными обязанностями и удовольствием от работы. Эффективнее работали те, кто хотел приносить пользу своей деятельностью. Это привело меня к предположению, что великодушные люди успешнее эгоистичных, потому что ими движет желание сделать мир лучше. Я получил подтверждение этой гипотезе в ряде исследований, но потом наткнулся на результаты других работ, в которых великодушию сопутствовала низкая производительность и раннее выгорание. Я не бросился их опровергать, а подумал и понял, что это я неправ: у меня было недостаточно информации. Я начал изучать, в каких случаях великодушные люди терпят крах и приходят к успеху. Так появилась моя первая книга «Брать или отдавать?».
125
Corey Lee M. Keyes, «Subjective Change and Its Consequences for Emotional Well-Being», Motivation and Emotion 24 (2000): 67–84.
126
Anthony L. Burrow et al., «Derailment: Conceptualization, Measurement, and Adjustment Correlates of Perceived Change in Self and Direction», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 118 (2020): 584–601.
127
Michael J. Chandler et al., «Personal Persistence, Identity Development, and Suicide: A Study of Native and Non-Native North American Adolescents», Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 68 (2003): 1–138.
128
Kaylin Ratner et al., «Depression and Derailment: A Cyclical Model of Mental Illness and Perceived Identity Change», Clinical Psychological Science 7 (2019): 735–53.
129
Personal interview with Ray Dalio, October 11, 2017; «How to Love Criticism», WorkLife with Adam Grant, February 28, 2018.
130
Personal interviews with Jean-Pierre Beugoms, June 26 and July 22, 2019.
131
Nate Silver, «How I Acted Like a Pundit and Screwed Up on Donald Trump», FiveThirtyEight, May 18, 2016, fivethirtyeight.com/features/how-i-acted-like-a-pundit-and-screwed-up-on-donald-trump.
132
Andrew Sabisky, «Just-World Bias Has Twisted Media Coverage of the Donald Trump Campaign», International Business Times, March 9, 2016, www.ibtimes.co.uk/just-world-bias-has-twisted-media-coverage-donald-trump-campaign-1547151.
133
Daryl R. Van Tongeren et al., «Religious Residue: Cross-Cultural Evidence That Religious Psychology and Behavior Persist Following Deidentification», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (March 12, 2020).
134
Можно менять даже самые глубоко укоренившиеся убеждения, не затрагивая ценности. Недавно психологи сравнивали людей, отошедших от веры, с приверженцами религии и атеистами. В Гонконге, Нидерландах, Новой Зеландии и США обнаружился остаточный эффект религии: отказавшиеся от нее занимались волонтерской работой так же часто и жертвовали на благотворительность больше, чем атеисты.
135
Jean-Pierre Beugoms, «Who Will Win the Republican Party Nomination for the U.S. Presidential Election?», Good Judgment Open, November 18, 2015, www.gjopen.com/comments/44283.
136
Philip E. Tetlock and Dan Gardner, Superforecasting: The Art and Science of Prediction (New York: Random House, 2015); Philip E. Tetlock, Expert Political Judgment: How Good Is It? How Can We Know? (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005).
137
Uriel Haran, Ilana Ritov, and Barbara A. Mellers, «The Role of Actively Open-Minded Thinking in Information Acquisition, Accuracy, and Calibration», Judgment and Decision Making 8 (2013): 188–201.
138
Barbara Mellers et al., «The Psychology of Intelligence Analysis: Drivers of Prediction Accuracy in World Politics», Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied 21 (2015): 1–14.
139
Barbara Mellers et al., «Identifying and Cultivating Superforecasters as a Method of Improving Probabilistic Predictions», Perspectives on Psychological Science 10 (2015): 267–81.
140
Kathryn Schulz, Being Wrong: Adventures in the Margin of Error (New York: HarperCollins, 2010).
141
Keith E. Stanovich and Richard F. West, «Reasoning Independently of Prior Belief and Individual Differences in Actively Open-Minded Thinking», Journal of Educational Psychology 89 (1997): 342–57.
142
Seinfeld, season 6, episode 16, «The Beard», February 9, 1995, NBC.
143
Personal interview with Kjirste Morrell, May 21, 2019.
144
Asher Koriat, Sarah Lichtenstein, and Baruch Fischhoff, «Reasons for Confidence», Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 6 (1980): 107–18.
145
«Self-Defeating Humor Promotes Psychological Well-Being, Study Reveals», ScienceDaily, February 8, 2018, www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/02/180208104225.htm.
146
Реакция окружающих на человека, смеющегося над собой, зависит от его пола. Склонные к самоиронии мужчины воспринимаются хорошими управленцами [Jonathan B. Evans et al., «Gender and the Evaluation of Humor at Work», Journal of Applied Psychology 104 (2019): 1077–87.], а женщины наоборот — неумелыми руководителями. Оказывается, немногие в курсе, что умение посмеяться над собой не говорит о неадекватности или некомпетентности женщины. Это признак уверенной скромности и остроумия.
147
Mark Sullivan, «Jeff Bezos at re: MARS», Fast Company, June 6, 2019, www.fastcompany.com/90360687/jeff-bezos-business-advice-5-tips-from-amazons-remars?_ga=2.101831750.679949067.1593530400-358702464.1558396776.
148
John Noble Wilford, «Astronomer Retracts His Discovery of Planet», New York Times, January 16, 1992, www.nytimes.com/1992/01/16/us/astronomer-retracts-his-discovery-of-planet.html.
149
Michael D. Lemonick, «When Scientists Screw Up», Slate, October 15, 2012, slate.com/technology/2012/10/scientists-make-mistakes-how-astronomers-and-biologists-correct-the-record-when-theyve-screwed-up.html.
150
Adam K. Fetterman and Kai Sassenberg, «The Reputational Consequences of Failed Replications and Wrongness Admission Among Scientists», PLoS ONE 10 (2015): e0143723.
151
Adam K. Fetterman et al., «On the Willingness to Admit Wrongness: Validation of a New Measure and an Exploration of Its Correlates», Personality and Individual Differences 138 (2019): 193–202.
152
Will Smith, «Fault vs Responsibility», YouTube, January 31, 2018, www.youtube.com/watch?v=USsqkd-E9ag.
153
Chase, A Mind for Murder.
154
See James Q. Wilson, «In Search of Madness», New York Times, January 15, 1998, www.nytimes.com/1998/01/15/opinion/in-search-of-madness.html.
155
Oscar Wilde, «The Remarkable Rocket», in The Happy Prince and Other Stories, ed. L. Carr (London: Heritage Illustrated Publishing, 1888/2014).
156
David McCullough, The Wright Brothers (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2015); Tom D. Crouch, The Bishop’s Boys: A Life of Wilbur and Orville Wright (New York: W. W. Norton, 2003); James Tobin, To Conquer the Air (New York: Free Press, 2003); Peter L. Jakab and Rick Young, eds., The Published Writings of Wilbur and Orville Wright (Washington, DC: Smithsonian, 2000); Fred Howard, Wilbur and Orville: A Biography of the Wright Brothers (New York: Ballantine, 1988).
157
Jesse David Fox, «The History of Tina Fey and Amy Poehler’s Best Friendship», Vulture, December 15, 2015, www.vulture.com/2013/01/history-of-tina-and-amys-best-friendship.html.
158
Michael Gallucci, «The Day John Lennon Met Paul McCartney», Ultimate Classic Rock, July 6, 2015, ultimateclassicrock.com/john-lennon-meets-paul-mccartney.
159
Rosanna Greenstreet, «How We Met: Ben Cohen and Jerry Greenfield», Independent, May 28, 1995, www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/how-we-met-ben-cohen-and-jerry-greenfield-1621559.html.
160
Karen A. Jehn, «A Multimethod Examination of the Benefits and Detriments of Intragroup Conflict», Administrative Science Quarterly 40 (1995): 256–82.
161
Penelope Spheeris et al., The Little Rascals, directed by Penelope Spheeris, Universal Pictures, 1994.
162
William Goldman, The Princess Bride, directed by Rob Reiner, 20th Century Fox, 1987.
163
David Mickey Evans and Robert Gunter, The Sandlot, directed by David Mickey Evans, 20th Century Fox, 1993.
164
Frank R. C. de Wit, Lindred L. Greer, and Karen A. Jehn, «The Paradox of Intragroup Conflict: A Meta-analysis», Journal of Applied Psychology 97 (2012): 360–90.
165
Jiing-Lih Farh, Cynthia Lee, and Crystal I. C. Farh, «Task Conflict and Creativity: A Question of How Much and When», Journal of Applied Psychology 95 (2010): 1173–80.
166
Carsten K. W. De Dreu, «When Too Little or Too Much Hurts: Evidence for a Curvilinear Relationship between Task Conflict and Innovation in Teams», Journal of Management 32 (2006): 83–107.
167
Robert S. Dooley and Gerald E. Fryxell, «Attaining Decision Quality and Commitment from Dissent: The Moderating Effects of Loyalty and Competence in Strategic Decision-Making Teams», Academy of Management Journal 42 (1999): 389–402.
168
Kathleen M. Eisenhardt, Jean L. Kahwajy, and L. J. Bourgeois III, «How Management Teams Can Have a Good Fight», Harvard Business Review, July — August 1997, 77–85.
169
Kathleen McCoy, E. Mark Cummings, and Patrick T. Davies, «Constructive and Destructive Marital Conflict, Emotional Security and Children’s Prosocial Behavior», Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 50 (2009): 270–79.
170
Donald W. Mackinnon, «Personality and the Realization of Creative Potential», American Psychologist 20 (1965): 273–81.
171
Paula Olszewski, Marilynn Kulieke, and Thomas Buescher, «The Influence of the Family Environment on the Development of Talent: A Literature Review», Journal for the Education of the Gifted 11 (1987): 6–28.
172
Robert S. Albert, ed., Genius & Eminence (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1992).
173
Lauri A. Jensen-Campbell, Jennifer M. Knack, and Haylie L. Gomez, «The Psychology of Nice People», Social and Personality Psychology Compass 4 (2010): 1042–56; Robert R. McCrae and Antonio Terraciano, «National Character and Personality», Current Directions in Psychological Science 15 (2006): 156–61.
174
По результатам анализа более чем 40 миллионов твитов [Bryor Snefjella, Daniel Schmidtke, and Victor Kuperman, «National Character Stereotypes Mirror Language Use: A Study of Canadian and American Tweets», PLoS ONE 13 (2018): e0206188.], самые распространенные в постах американцев слова — бранные (sh*t, b*tch, hate и damn), а у канадцев — «спасибо», «отлично», «хорошо» и «конечно».
175
Henk T. van der Molen, Henk G. Schmidt, and Gerard Kruisman, «Personality Characteristics of Engineers», European Journal of Engineering Education 32 (2007): 495–501; Gidi Rubinstein, «The Big Five among Male and Female Students of Different Faculties», Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005): 1495–503.
176
Stéphane Côté and D. S. Moskowitz, «On the Dynamic Covariation between Interpersonal Behavior and Affect: Prediction from Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Agreeableness», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75 (1998): 1032–46.
177
Personal interviews with Brad Bird, November 8, 2018, and April 28, 2020; Nicole Grindle, October 19, 2018, and March 17, 2020; and John Walker, November 21, 2018, and March 24, 2020; «The Creative Power of Misfits», WorkLife with Adam Grant, March 5, 2019; Hayagreeva Rao, Robert Sutton, and Allen P. Webb, «Innovation Lessons from Pixar: An Interview with Oscar-Winning Director Brad Bird», McKinsey Quarterly, April 1, 2008, www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/strategy-and-corporate-finance/our-insights/innovation-lessons-from-pixar-an-interview-with-oscar-winning-director-brad-bird; The Making of «The Incredibles», directed by Rick Butler, Pixar, 2005; Alec Bojalad, «The Incredibles 2: Brad Bird on Family, Blu-Ray Extras, and More», Den of Geek, October 24, 2018, www.denofgeek.com/tv/the-incredibles-2-brad-bird-on-family-blu-ray-extras-and-more.
178
Jeffery A. LePine and Linn Van Dyne, «Voice and Cooperative Behavior as Contrasting Forms of Contextual Performance: Evidence of Differential Relationships with Big Five Personality Characteristics and Cognitive Ability», Journal of Applied Psychology 86 (2001): 326–36.
179
Samuel T. Hunter and Lily Cushenbery, «Is Being a Jerk Necessary for Originality? Examining the Role of Disagreeableness in the Sharing and Utilization of Original Ideas», Journal of Business and Psychology 30 (2015): 621–39.
180
Leslie A. DeChurch and Michelle A. Marks, «Maximizing the Benefits of Task Conflict: The Role of Conflict Management», International Journal of Conflict Management 12 (2001): 4–22.
181
Jing Zhou and Jennifer M. George, «When Job Dissatisfaction Leads to Creativity: Encouraging the Expression of Voice», Academy of Management Journal 44 (2001): 682–96.
182
Amir Goldberg et al., «Fitting In or Standing Out? The Tradeoffs of Structural and Cultural Embeddedness», American Sociological Review 81 (2016): 1190–222.
183
Joeri Hofmans and Timothy A. Judge, «Hiring for Culture Fit Doesn’t Have to Undermine Diversity», Harvard Business Review, September 18, 2019, hbr.org/2019/09/hiring-for-culture-fit-doesnt-have-to-undermine-diversity.
184
Sun Hyun Park, James D. Westphal, and Ithai Stern, «Set Up for a Fall: The Insidious Effects of Flattery and Opinion Conformity toward Corporate Leaders», Administrative Science Quarterly 56 (2011): 257–302.
185
Francesca Gino, «Research: We Drop People Who Give Us Critical Feedback», Harvard Business Review, September 16, 2016, hbr.org/2016/09/research-we-drop-people-who-give-us-critical-feedback.
186
William Safire, «On Language: Murder Board at the Skunk Works», New York Times, October 11, 1987, www.nytimes.com/1987/10/11/magazine/on-language-murder-board-at-the-skunk-works.html.
187
Derek Thompson, «Google X and the Science of Radical Creativity», The Atlantic, November 2017, www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/11/x-google-moonshot-factory/540648.
188
Восприятие критики зависит в той же мере от критикующей личности, в какой и от содержания [David Yeager et al., «Breaking the Cycle of Mistrust: Wise Interventions to Provide Critical Feedback across the Racial Divide», Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 143 (2014): 804–24.]. В одном эксперименте участники на 40% лучше восприняли критику с комментарием: «Я вам это говорю только потому, что считаю, что вы способны на большее». Принять горькую правду поразительно легко, если говорящий в вас верит и желает вам успеха.
189
The Cambridge Companion to Hemingway, ed. Scott Donaldson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
190
Elizabeth W. Morrison, «Employee Voice Behavior: Integration and Directions for Future Research», Academy of Management Annals 5 (2011): 373–412; Charlan Jeanne Nemeth, In Defense of Troublemakers: The Power of Dissent in Life and Business (New York: Basic Books, 2018).
191
Jennifer A. Chatman and Sigal G. Barsade, «Personality, Organizational Culture, and Cooperation: Evidence from a Business Simulation», Administrative Science Quarterly 40 (1995): 423–43.
192
De Wit, Greer, and Jehn, «The Paradox of Intragroup Conflict».
193
Ming-Hong Tsai and Corinne Bendersky, «The Pursuit of Information Sharing: Expressing Task Conflicts as Debates vs. Disagreements Increases Perceived Receptivity to Dissenting Opinions in Groups», Organization Science 27 (2016): 141–56.
194
Philip M. Fernbach et al., «Political Extremism Is Supported by an Illusion of Understanding», Psychological Science 24 (2013): 939–46.
195
Leonid Rozenblit and Frank Keil, «The Misunderstood Limits of Folk Science: An Illusion of Explanatory Depth», Cognitive Science 26 (2002): 521–62.
196
Matthew Fisher and Frank Keil, «The Curse of Expertise: When More Knowledge Leads to Miscalibrated Explanatory Insight», Cognitive Science 40 (2016): 1251–69.
197
Dan R. Johnson, Meredith P. Murphy, and Riley M. Messer, «Reflecting on Explanatory Ability: A Mechanism for Detecting Gaps in Causal Knowledge», Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 145 (2016): 573–88.
198
Tim Kreider, We Learn Nothing: Essays (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012).
199
Personal interview with Harish Natarajan, May 23, 2019; «Live Debate: IBM Project Debater», IntelligenceSquared Debates, YouTube, February 11, 2019, www.youtube.com/watch?v=m3u-1yttrVw.
200
Nicholas Kristof, «Too Small to Fail», New York Times, June 2, 2016, www.nytimes.com/2016/06/02/opinion/building-childrens-brains.html.
201
George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980).
202
Neil Rackham, «The Behavior of Successful Negotiators», in Negotiation: Readings, Exercises, and Cases, ed. Roy Lewicki, Bruce Barry, and David Saunders (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980/2007).
203
Femke S. Ten Velden, Bianca Beersma, and Carsten K. W. De Dreu, «It Takes One to Tango: The Effects of Dyads’ Epistemic Motivation Composition in Negotiations», Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 36 (2010): 1454–66.
204
Maria Popova, «How to Criticize with Kindness: Philosopher Daniel Dennett on the Four Steps to Arguing Intelligently», BrainPickings, March 28, 2014, www.brainpickings.org/2014/03/28/daniel-dennett-rapoport-rules-criticism.
205
Fabrizio Butera, Nicolas Sommet, and Céline Darnon, «Sociocognitive Conflict Regulation: How to Make Sense of Diverging Ideas», Current Directions in Psychological Science 28 (2019): 145–51.
206
IBM Research Editorial Staff, «Think 2019 Kicks Off with Live Debate between Man and Machine», IBM Research Blog, February 12, 2019, www.ibm.com/blogs/research/2019/02/ai-debate-recap-think-2019; Paul Teich, «IBM Project Debater Speaks to the Future of AI», The Next Platform, March 27, 2019, www.nextplatform.com/2019/03/27/ibm-project-debater-speaks-to-the-future-of-ai; Dieter Bohn, «What It’s Like to Watch an IBM AI Successfully Debate Humans», The Verge, June 18, 2018, www.theverge.com/2018/6/18/17477686/ibm-project-debater-ai.
207
Conor Friedersdorf, «The Highest Form of Disagreement», The Atlantic, June 26, 2017, www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/06/the-highest-form-of-disagreement/531597.
208
Kate A. Ranganath, Barbara A. Spellman, and Jennifer A. Joy-Gaba, «Cognitive ‘Category-Based Induction’ Research and Social ‘Persuasion’ Research Are Each about What Makes Arguments Believable: A Tale of Two Literatures», Perspectives on Psychological Science 5 (2010): 115–22.
209
Richard E. Petty and Duane T. Wegener, «The Elaboration Likelihood Model: Current Status and Controversies», in Dual-Process Theories in Social Psychology, ed. Shelly Chaiken and Yaacov Trope (New York: Guilford, 1999).
210
John Biondo and A. P. MacDonald Jr., «Internal-External Locus of Control and Response to Influence Attempts», Journal of Personality 39 (1971): 407–19.
211
Daniel C. Feiler, Leigh P. Tost, and Adam M. Grant, «Mixed Reasons, Missed Givings: The Costs of Blending Egoistic and Altruistic Reasons in Donation Requests», Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48 (2012): 1322–28.
212
Rachel (Penny) Breuhaus, «Get in the Game: Comparing the Effects of Self-Persuasion and Direct Influence in Motivating Attendance at UNC Men’s Basketball Games» (honors thesis, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2009).
213
Elliot Aronson, «The Power of Self-Persuasion», American Psychologist 54 (1999): 875–84.
214
David G. Allen, Phillip C. Bryant, and James M. Vardaman, «Retaining Talent: Replacing Misconceptions with Evidence-Based Strategies», Academy of Management Perspectives 24 (2017): 48–64.
215
Зарплата — это не морковка, которой заманивают сотрудников, а отражение их ценности для компании. Руководство может мотивировать, создавая значимые должности и предоставляя свободу, зону контроля, ощущение причастности и возможность изменить мир к лучшему. А высокая зарплата — это лишь благодарность.
216
Paul Graham, «How to Disagree», PaulGraham.com, March 2008, www.paulgraham.com/disagree.html.
217
Aaron Kozbelt, «Longitudinal Hit Ratios of Classical Composers: Reconciling ‘Darwinian’ and Expertise Acquisition Perspectives on Lifespan Creativity», Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts 2 (2008): 221–35; Adam Grant, «The Surprising Habits of Original Thinkers», TED Talk, February 2016, www.ted.com/talks/adam_grant_the_surprising_habits_of_original_thinkers.
218
See Michael Natkin, «Strong Opinions Loosely Held Might Be the Worst Idea in Tech», The Glowforge Blog, May 1, 2019, blog.glowforge.com/strong-opinions-loosely-held-might-be-the-worst-idea-in-tech.
219
В метаанализе попыток убеждения двусторонние сообщения [Mike Allen, «Meta-analysis Comparing the Persuasiveness of One-Sided and Two-Sided Messages», Western Journal of Speech Communication 55 (1991): 390–404.] оказались результативнее односторонних при условии, что была опровергнута основная идея оппонента. Двухсторонние сообщения, изложенные без демонстрации позиции, были менее убедительны, чем односторонние.
220
Robert J. Cramer, Stanley L. Brodsky, and Jamie DeCoster, «Expert Witness Confidence and Juror Personality: Their Impact on Credibility and Persuasion in the Courtroom», Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and Law 37 (2009) 63–74; Harvey London, Dennis McSeveney, and Richard Tropper, «Confidence, Overconfidence and Persuasion», Human Relations 24 (1971): 359–69.
221
Personal interview with Michele Hansen, February 23, 2018; «The Problem with All-Stars», WorkLife with Adam Grant, March 14, 2018.
222
The Office, season 3, episode 23, «Beach Games», May 10, 2007, NBC.
223
Seinfeld, season 5, episode 22, «The Opposite», May 19, 1994, NBC.
224
Ovul Sezer, Francesca Gino, and Michael I. Norton, «Humblebragging: A Distinct — and Ineffective — Self-Presentation Strategy», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 114 (2018): 52–74.
225
Doris Kearns Goodwin, MLB Pro Blog, doriskearnsgoodwin.mlblogs.com.
226
Personal communications with Daryl Davis, April 10, 2020; Daryl Davis, «What Do You Do When Someone Just Doesn’t Like You?», TEDxCharlottesville, November 2017, www.ted.com/talks/daryl_davis_what_do_you_do_when_someone_just_doesn_t_like_you; Dwane Brown, «How One Man Convinced 200 Ku Klux Klan Members to Give Up Their Robes», NPR, August 20, 2017, www.npr.org/transcripts/544861933; Craig Phillips, «Reformed Racists: Is There Life after Hate for Former White Supremacists?», PBS, February 9, 2017, www.pbs.org/independentlens/blog/reformed-racists-white-supremacists-life-after-hate; The Joe Rogan Experience, #1419, January 30, 2020; Jeffrey Fleishman, «A Black Man’s Quixotic Quest to Quell the Racism of the KKK, One Robe at a Time», Los Angeles Times, December 8, 2016, www.latimes.com/entertainment/movies/la-ca-film-accidental-courtesy-20161205-story.html.
227
Amos Barshad, «Yankees Suck! Yankees Suck!» Grantland, September 1, 2015, http://grantland.com/features/yankees-suck-t-shirts-boston-red-sox.
228
Steven A. Lehr, Meghan L. Ferreira, and Mahzarin R. Banaji, «When Outgroup Negativity Trumps Ingroup Positivity: Fans of the Boston Red Sox and New York Yankees Place Greater Value on Rival Losses Than Own-Team Gains», Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 22 (2017): 26–42.
229
Mina Cikara and Susan T. Fiske, «Their Pain, Our Pleasure: Stereotype Content and Schadenfreude», Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1299 (2013): 52–59.
230
Eduardo Gonzalez, «Most Hated Baseball Team on Twitter?», Los Angeles Times, July 1, 2019, www.latimes.com/sports/mlb/la-sp-most-hated-mlb-teams-twitter-yankees-cubs-dodgers-20190701-story.html.
231
Hannah Schwär, «Puma and Adidas’ Rivalry Has Divided a Small German Town for 70 Years — Here’s What It Looks Like Now», Business Insider Deutschland, October 1, 2018; Ellen Emmerentze Jervell, «Where Puma and Adidas Were Like Hatfields and McCoys», Wall Street Journal, December 30, 2014, www.wsj.com/articles/where-adidas-and-pumas-were-like-hatfields-and-mccoys-1419894858; Allan Hall, «Adidas and Puma Bury the Hatchet after 60 Years of Brothers’ Feud after Football Match», Daily Telegraph, September 22, 2009, www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/6216728/Adidas-and-Puma-bury-the-hatchet-after-60-years-of-brothers-feud-after-football-match.html.
232
Kimberly D. Elsbach and C. B. Bhattacharya, «Defining Who You Are by What You’re Not: Organizational Disidentification and the National Rifle Association», Organization Science 12 (2001): 393–413.
233
Я знаю как минимум одну фанатку Штеффи Граф, которая ликовала, когда Монику Селеш в 1993 году ударили ножом прямо на корте. В 2019 году на финальных играх НБА Кевин Дюран получил травму, и некоторые фанаты Toronto Raptors торжествовали, тем самым доказав, что даже канадцы способны на жестокость. Один радиоведущий сказал: «Нет такого фаната в профессиональном спорте, который не радовался бы травме соперника, потому что теоретически это упрощает команде путь к победе». При всем уважении, если человека больше волнует исход игры, чем реальные человеческие страдания, то он — социопат. Агрессия простирается и за пределы игрового поля: от Барселоны до Бразилии между фанатами нередки драки. Жульничество тоже процветает, и не только среди игроков и тренеров. Студентам из Государственного университета Огайо платили за участие в эксперименте [Gavin J. Kilduff et al., «Whatever It Takes to Win: Rivalry Increases Unethical Behavior», Academy of Management Journal 59 (2016): 1508–34.] и предупредили, что удвоят оплату, если те солгут учащимся из другого университета, а тем в таком случае урежут вознаграждение в два раза. Студентам Мичиганского университета лгали в два раза чаще, чем тем, кто учился в вузах Беркли и Вирджинии.
234
Michael Diehl, «The Minimal Group Paradigm: Theoretical Explanations and Empirical Findings», European Review of Social Psychology 1 (1990): 263–92.
235
Dave Hauser (@DavidJHauser), December 5, 2019, twitter.com/DavidJHauser/status/1202610237934592000.
236
Philip Furley, «What Modern Sports Competitions Can Tell Us about Human Nature», Perspectives on Psychological Science 14 (2019): 138–55.
237
Robert B. Cialdini et al., «Basking in Reflected Glory: Three (Football) Field Studies», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 34 (1976): 366–75.
238
По поводу влияния футбольных проигрышей на фондовый рынок ведутся активные споры [John K. Ashton, Robert Simon Hudson, and Bill Gerrard, «Do National Soccer Results Really Impact on the Stock Market?», Applied Economics 43 (2011): 3709–17; Guy Kaplanski and Haim Levy, «Exploitable Predictable Irrationality: The FIFA World Cup Effect on the U.S. Stock Market», Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis 45 (2010): 535–53; Jerome Geyer-Klingeberg et al., «Do Stock Markets React to Soccer Games? A Meta-regression Analysis», Applied Economics 50 (2018): 2171–89.]: хотя эффект доказан многочисленными исследованиями, в некоторых случаях он не подтверждался. Я думаю, дело в популярности футбола в стране: когда на победу команды делают большие ставки, проигрыш не может ничего не значить. Как бы спорт ни влиял на рынки, на настроении людей он безусловно сказывается. В исследовании с участием европейских офицеров выяснилось, что, когда их любимая команда в воскресенье проигрывает [Panagiotis Gkorezis et al., «Linking Football Team Performance to Fans’ Work Engagement and Job Performance: Test of a Spillover Model», Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 89 (2016): 791–812.], в понедельник на службе им труднее сосредоточиться, что, вероятно, негативно сказывается на их продуктивности.
239
Gavin J. Kilduff, Hillary Anger Elfenbein, and Barry M. Staw, «The Psychology of Rivalry: A Relationally Dependent Analysis of Competition», Academy of Management Journal 53 (2010): 943–69.
240
Seth Stephens-Davidowitz, «They Hook You When You’re Young», New York Times, April 19, 2014, www.nytimes.com/2014/04/20/opinion/sunday/they-hook-you-when-youre-young.html; J. Clement, «Major League Baseball Teams with the Most Facebook Fans as of June 2020», Statista, June 16, 2020, www.statista.com/statistics/235719/facebook-fans-of-major-league-baseball-teams.
241
George A. Kelly, The Psychology of Personal Constructs, vol. 1, A Theory of Personality (New York: Norton, 1955).
242
Daniel J. Isenberg, «Group Polarization: A Critical Review and Meta-analysis», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50 (1986): 1141–51.
243
Robert M. Bray and Audrey M. Noble, «Authoritarianism and Decision in Mock Juries: Evidence of Jury Bias and Group Polarization», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 36 (1978): 1424–30.
244
Cass R. Sunstein and Reid Hastie, Wiser: Getting Beyond Groupthink to Make Groups Smarter (Boston: Harvard Business Review Press, 2014).
245
Liran Goldman and Michael A. Hogg, «Going to Extremes for One’s Group: The Role of Prototypicality and Group Acceptance», Journal of Applied Social Psychology 46 (2016): 544–53; Michael A. Hogg, John C. Turner, and Barbara Davidson, «Polarized Norms and Social Frames of Reference: A Test of the Self-Categorization Theory of Group Polarization», Basic and Applied Social Psychology 11 (1990): 77–100.
246
Peter Suedfeld, Katya Legkaia, and Jelena Brcic, «Changes in the Hierarchy of Value References Associated with Flying in Space», Journal of Personality 78 (2010): 1411–36.
247
С Луны: «Edgar Mitchell’s Strange Voyage», People, April 8, 1974, people.com/archive/edgar-mitchells-strange-voyage-vol-1-no-6.
248
Находясь на Земле, астронавты: Personal interview with Jeff Ashby, January 12, 2018; «How to Trust People You Don’t Like», WorkLife with Adam Grant, March 28, 2018.
249
Johannes Berendt and Sebastian Uhrich, «Rivalry and Fan Aggression: Why Acknowledging Conflict Reduces Tension between Rival Fans and Downplaying Makes Things Worse», European Sport Management Quarterly 18 (2018): 517–40.
250
Mark Levine et al., «Identity and Emergency Intervention: How Social Group Membership and Inclusiveness of Group Boundaries Shape Helping Behavior», Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31 (2005): 443–53.
251
Herbert C. Kelman, «Group Processes in the Resolution of International Conflicts: Experiences from the Israeli-Palestinian Case», American Psychologist 52 (1997): 212–20.
252
Alison R. Fragale, Karren Knowlton, and Adam M. Grant, «Feeling for Your Foes: Empathy Can Reverse the In-Group Helping Preference» (working paper, 2020).
253
Myron Rothbart and Oliver P. John, «Social Categorization and Behavioral Episodes: A Cognitive Analysis of the Effects of Intergroup Contact», Journal of Social Issues 41 (1985): 81–104.
254
ESPN College Football, www.espn.com/video/clip/_/id/18106107.
255
Seinfeld, season 6, episode 12, «The Label Maker», January 19, 1995, NBC.
256
Tim Kundro and Adam M. Grant, «Bad Blood on the Diamond: Highlighting the Arbitrariness of Acrimony Can Reduce Animosity toward Rivals» (working paper, 2020).
257
Kai Epstude and Neal J. Roese, «The Functional Theory of Counterfactual Thinking», Personality and Social Psychology Review 12 (2008): 168–92.
258
Lee Jussim et al., «The Unbearable Accuracy of Stereotypes», in Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination, ed. Todd D. Nelson (New York: Psychology Press, 2009).
259
Lee Jussim, Jarret T. Crawford, and Rachel S. Rubinstein, «Stereotype (In)accuracy in Perceptions of Groups and Individuals», Current Directions in Psychological Science 24 (2015): 490–97.
260
Jackson G. Lu et al., «Disentangling Stereotypes from Social Reality: Astrological Stereotypes and Discrimination in China», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (2020), psycnet.apa.org/record/2020-19028-001.
261
Психологи действительно недавно провели исследование и обнаружили, что случайно выбранные названия знаков зодиака могут порождать стереотипы и стать причиной дискриминации. Дева (virgo) на китайском звучит как «девственница» (virgin), что ассоциируется со старой девой — сварливой, брезгливой, дотошной и чересчур привередливой.
262
Gregory R. Maio and James M. Olson, «Values as Truisms: Evidence and Implications», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74 (1998): 294–311.
263
Paul H. P. Hanel, Gregory R. Maio, and Antony S. R. Manstead, «A New Way to Look at the Data: Similarities between Groups of People Are Large and Important», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 116 (2019): 541–62.
264
Thomas F. Pettigrew and Linda R. Tropp, «A Meta-analytic Test of Intergroup Contact Theory», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90 (2006): 751–83.
265
Jennifer R. Overbeck and Vitaliya Droutman, «One for All: Social Power Increases Self-Anchoring of Traits, Attitudes, and Emotions», Psychological Science 24 (2013): 1466–76.
266
Leigh Plunkett Tost, Francesca Gino, and Richard P. Larrick, «When Power Makes Others Speechless», Academy of Management Journal 56 (2013): 1465–86.
267
See Eric Boodman, «The Vaccine Whisperers: Counselors Gently Engage New Parents Before Their Doubts Harden into Certainty», STAT, August 5, 2019, https://www.statnews.com/2019/08/05/the-vaccine-whisperers-counselors-gently-engage-new-parents-before-their-doubts-harden-into-certainty/.
268
Nick Paumgarten, «The Message of Measles», New Yorker, August 26, 2019, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/09/02/the-message-of-measles; Leslie Roberts, «Why Measles Deaths Are Surging — and Coronavirus Could Make It Worse», Nature, April 7, 2020, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-01011-6.
269
Helen Branswell, «New York County, Declaring Emergency over Measles, Seeks to Ban Unvaccinated from Public Places», STAT, March 26, 2019, https://www.statnews.com/2019/03/26/rockland-county-ny-declares-emergency-over-measles/; Tyler Pager, «‘Monkey, Rat and Pig DNA’: How Misinformation Is Driving the Measles Outbreak among Ultra-Orthodox Jews», New York Times, April 9, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/04/09/nyregion/jews-measles-vaccination.html.
270
Matthew J. Hornsey, Emily A. Harris, and Kelly S. Fielding, «The Psychological Roots of Anti-Vaccination Attitudes: A 24-Nation Investigation», Health Psychology 37 (2018): 307–15.
271
Cornelia Betsch and Katharina Sachse, «Debunking Vaccination Myths: Strong Risk Negations Can Increase Perceived Vaccination Risks», Health Psychology 32 (2013): 146–55.
272
Brendan Nyhan et al., «Effective Messages in Vaccine Promotion: A Randomized Trial», Pediatrics 133 (2014): e835–42.
273
Zakary L. Tormala and Richard E. Petty, «What Doesn’t Kill Me Makes Me Stronger: The Effects of Resisting Persuasion on Attitude Certainty», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002): 1298–313.
274
William J. McGuire, «Inducing Resistance to Persuasion: Some Contemporary Approaches», Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 1 (1964): 191–229.
275
John A. Banas and Stephen A. Rains, «A Meta-analysis of Research on Inoculation Theory», Communication Monographs 77 (2010): 281–311.
276
Personal communications with Bill Miller, September 3 and 6, 2019.
277
William R. Miller and Stephen Rollnick, Motivational Interviewing: Helping People Change, 3rd ed. (New York: Guilford, 2012).
278
Personal interview with Arnaud Gagneur, October 8, 2019.
279
Arnaud Gagneur et al., «A Postpartum Vaccination Promotion Intervention Using Motivational Interviewing Techniques Improves Short-Term Vaccine Coverage: PromoVac Study», BMC Public Health 18 (2018): 811.
280
Thomas Lemaître et al., «Impact of a Vaccination Promotion Intervention Using Motivational Interview Techniques on Long-Term Vaccine Coverage: The PromoVac Strategy», Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics 15 (2019): 732–39.
281
Carolyn J. Heckman, Brian L. Egleston, and Makary T. Hofmann, «Efficacy of Motivational Interviewing for Smoking Cessation: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis», Tobacco Control 19 (2010): 410–16.
282
Brad W. Lundahl et al., «A Meta-analysis of Motivational Interviewing: Twenty-Five Years of Empirical Studies», Research on Social Work Practice 20 (2010): 137–60.
283
Brian L. Burke, Hal Arkowitz, and Marisa Menchola, «The Efficacy of Motivational Interviewing: A Meta-analysis of Controlled Clinical Trials», Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 71 (2003): 843–61.
284
Pam Macdonald et al., «The Use of Motivational Interviewing in Eating Disorders: A Systematic Review», Psychiatry Research 200 (2012): 1–11.
285
Marni J. Armstrong et al., «Motivational Interviewing to Improve Weight Loss in Overweight Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials», Obesity Reviews 12 (2011): 709–23.
286
Jonathan Rhodes et al., «Enhancing Grit through Functional Imagery Training in Professional Soccer», Sport Psychologist 32 (2018): 220–25.
287
Neralie Cain, Michael Gradisar, and Lynette Moseley, «A Motivational School-Based Intervention for Adolescent Sleep Problems», Sleep Medicine 12 (2011): 246–51.
288
Conrado J. Grimolizzi-Jensen, «Organizational Change: Effect of Motivational Interviewing on Readiness to Change», Journal of Change Management 18 (2018): 54–69.
289
Angelica K. Thevos, Robert E. Quick, and Violet Yanduli, «Motivational Interviewing Enhances the Adoption of Water Disinfection Practices in Zambia», Health Promotion International 15 (2000): 207–14.
290
Florian E. Klonek et al., «Using Motivational Interviewing to Reduce Threats in Conversations about Environmental Behavior», Frontiers in Psychology 6 (2015): 1015; Sofia Tagkaloglou and Tim Kasser, «Increasing Collaborative, Pro-Environmental Activism: The Roles of Motivational Interviewing, Self-Determined Motivation, and Self-Efficacy», Journal of Environmental Psychology 58 (2018): 86–92.
291
Joshua L. Kalla and David E. Broockman, «Reducing Exclusionary Attitudes through Interpersonal Conversation: Evidence from Three Field Experiments», American Political Science Review 114 (2020): 410–25.
292
Megan Morris, W. Kim Halford, and Jemima Petch, «A Randomized Controlled Trial Comparing Family Mediation with and without Motivational Interviewing», Journal of Family Psychology 32 (2018): 269–75.
293
Sune Rubak et al., «Motivational Interviewing: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis», British Journal of General Practice 55 (2005): 305–12.
294
Похоже, представители человечества уже не одну тысячу лет владеют искусством уговаривать себя измениться. Недавно я узнал, что слово «абракадабра» происходит от фразы на древнеарамейском языке, означающей «Что было сказано, то будет сделано».
295
Anna Goldfarb, «How to Give People Advice They’ll Be Delighted to Take», New York Times, October 21, 2019, www.nytimes.com/2019/10/21/smarter-living/how-to-give-better-advice.html.
296
Molly Magill et al., «A Meta-analysis of Motivational Interviewing Process: Technical, Relational, and Conditional Process Models of Change», Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 86 (2018): 140–57; Timothy R. Apodaca et al., «Which Individual Therapist Behaviors Elicit Client Change Talk and Sustain Talk in Motivational Interviewing?», Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 61 (2016): 60–65; Molly Magill et al., «The Technical Hypothesis of Motivational Interviewing: A Meta-analysis of MI’s Key Causal Model», Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 82 (2014): 973–83.
297
Theresa Moyers, «Change Talk», Talking to Change with Glenn Hinds & Sebastian Kaplan.
298
Marian Friestad and Peter Wright, «The Persuasion Knowledge Model: How People Cope with Persuasion Attempts», Journal of Consumer Research 21 (1994): 1–31.
299
Personal interviews with Betty Bigombe, March 19 and May 8, 2020; see also «Betty Bigombe: The Woman Who Befriended a Warlord», BBC, August 8, 2019, www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49269136.
300
David Smith, «Surrender of Senior Aide to Joseph Kony Is Major Blow to Lord’s Resistance Army», Guardian, January 7, 2015, www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/jan/07/surrender-aide-joseph-kony-blow-lords-resistance — army.
301
Мирные переговоры сорвались после того, как президент Уганды отказал Бетти в просьбе установить предложенные ею правила и вместо этого начал угрожать Кони. Диктатор отомстил несколькими сотнями смертей в Атиаке. Потрясенная Бетти оставила пост и ушла во Всемирный банк. Десять лет спустя она возобновила мирные переговоры с повстанцами, вернулась в Уганду в качестве главного переговорщика и использовала только собственные средства, чтобы не зависеть от правительства. Соглашение было почти достигнуто, но в последнюю минуту Кони передумал. Сейчас от повстанческой армии осталась жалкая горстка, и она больше не считается серьезной угрозой.
302
Именно с этой целью квакеры проводят «собрания для прояснения». Там людям задают вопросы, чтобы вскрыть их сомнения и подтолкнуть к решению.
303
Kate Murphy, «Talk Less. Listen More. Here’s How», New York Times, January 9, 2010, www.nytimes.com/2020/01/09/opinion/listening-tips.html.
304
Guy Itzchakov et al., «The Listener Sets the Tone: High-Quality Listening Increases Attitude Clarity and Behavior-Intention Consequences», Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 44 (2018): 762–78; Guy Itzchakov, Avraham N. Kluger, and Dotan R. Castro, «I Am Aware of My Inconsistencies but Can Tolerate Them: The Effect of High Quality Listening on Speakers’ Attitude Ambivalence», Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 43 (2017): 105–20.
305
Guy Itzchakov and Avraham N. Kluger, «Can Holding a Stick Improve Listening at Work? The Effect of Listening Circles on Employees’ Emotions and Cognitions», European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology 26 (2017): 663–76.
306
Guy Itzchakov and Avraham N. Kluger, «The Power of Listening in Helping People Change», Harvard Business Review, May 17, 2018, hbr.org/2018/05/the-power-of-listening-in-helping-people-change.
307
E. M. Forster, Aspects of the Novel (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1927/1956); see also Graham Wallas, The Art of Thought (Kent, England: Solis Press, 1926/2014).
308
Wendy Moffat, E. M. Forster: A New Life (London: Bloomsbury, 2011).
309
Judi Brownell, «Perceptions of Effective Listeners: A Management Study», International Journal of Business Communication 27 (1973): 401–15.
310
«Poll: 1 in 3 Women Say Pets Listen Better Than Husbands», USA Today, April 30, 2010, usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/lifestyle/pets/2010-04-30-pets-vs-spouses_N.htm.
311
Naykky Singh Ospina et al., «Eliciting the Patient’s Agenda: Secondary Analysis of Recorded Clinical Encounters», Journal of General Internal Medicine 34 (2019): 36–40.
312
M. Kim Marvel et al., «Soliciting the Patient’s Agenda: Have We Improved?», Journal of the American Medical Association 281 (1999): 283–87.
313
Amanda Ripley, «Complicating the Narratives», Solutions Journalism, June 27, 2018, thewholestory.solutionsjournalism.org/complicating-the-narratives-b91ea06ddf63.
314
Peter T. Coleman, The Five Percent: Finding Solutions to Seemingly Impossible Conflicts (New York: PublicAffairs, 2011).
315
Katharina Kugler and Peter T. Coleman, «Get Complicated: The Effects of Complexity on Conversations over Potentially Intractable Moral Conflicts», Negotiation and Conflict Management Research (2020), onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ncmr.12192.
316
Matthew Fisher and Frank C. Keil, «The Binary Bias: A Systematic Distortion in the Integration of Information», Psychological Science 29 (2018): 1846–58.
317
«The Most Popular Book of the Month», Vanity Fair, February 1920, babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015032024203&view=1up&seq=203&q1=divide%20the%20world.
318
Walt Whitman, Leaves of Grass, in Walt Whitman: The Complete Poems, ed. Francis Murphy (London: Penguin Classics, 1855/2005).
319
Ripley, «Complicating the Narratives».
320
Кричащие заголовки о том, что Америка разделилась на два лагеря по поводу закона о ношении оружия, опускают много нюансов. Да, в этом вопросе мнения республиканцев и демократов диаметрально разошлись почти в равных долях — 47 и 50%. Однако, согласно опросам, они сошлись в том, что выдавать разрешения на оружие надо после проверки на наличие правонарушений и судимостей (этот пункт поддержали 83% республиканцев и 96% демократов) и подтверждения психического здоровья (поддержали 81% республиканцев и 94% демократов).
321
Mike DeBonis and Emily Guskin, «Americans of Both Parties Overwhelmingly Support ‘Red Flag’ Laws, Expanded Background Checks for Gun Buyers, Washington Post — ABC News Poll Finds», Washington Post, September 9, 2019, www.washingtonpost.com/politics/americans-of-both-parties-overwhelmingly-support-red-flag-laws-expanded-gun-background-checks-washington-post-abc-news-poll-finds/2019/09/08/97208916-ca75-11e9-a4f3-c081a126de70_story.html; Domenico Montanaro, «Poll: Most Americans Want to See Congress Pass Gun Restrictions», NPR, September 10, 2019, www.npr.org/2019/09/10/759193047/poll-most-americans-want-to-see-congress-pass-gun-restrictions.
322
Moira Fagan and Christine Huang, «A Look at How People around the World View Climate Change», Pew Research Center, April 18, 2019, www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/04/18/-look-at-how-people-around-the-world-view-climate-change.
323
«Environment», Gallup, news.gallup.com/poll/1615/environment.aspx; «About Six in Ten Americans Think Global Warming Is Mostly Human-Caused», Yale Program on Climate Change, December 2018, climatecommunication.yale.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/climate_change_american_mind_december_2018_1–3.png.
324
Ben Tappin, Leslie Van Der Leer, and Ryan Mckay, «You’re Not Going to Change Your Mind», New York Times, May 27, 2017, www.nytimes.com/2017/05/27/opinion/sunday/youre-not-going-to-change-your-mind.html.
325
Lawrence C. Hamilton, «Education, Politics and Opinions about Climate Change: Evidence for Interaction Effects», Climatic Change 104 (2011): 231–42.
326
Al Gore, «The Case for Optimism on Climate Change», TED, February 2016, www.ted.com/talks/al_gore_the_case_for_optimism_on_climate_change.
327
Steven Levy, «We Are Now at Peak TED», Wired, February 19, 2016, www.wired.com/2016/02/we-are-now-at-peak-ted.
328
Al Gore, «We Can’t Wish Away Climate Change», New York Times, February 27, 2010, www.nytimes.com/2010/02/28/opinion/28gore.html.
329
«Global Warming’s Six Americas», Yale Program on Climate Change Communication, climatecommunication.yale.edu/about/projects/global-warmings-six-americas.
330
Alexander Michael Petersen, Emmanuel M. Vincent, and Anthony LeRoy Westerling, «Discrepancy in Scientific Authority and Media Visibility of Climate Change Scientists and Contrarians», Nature Communications 10 (2019): 3502.
331
Matto Mildenberger and Dustin Tingley, «Beliefs about Climate Beliefs: The Importance of Second-Order Opinions for Climate Politics», British Journal of Political Science 49 (2019): 1279–307.
332
Климатологи пошли дальше и отмечают, что отрицающие тоже делятся как минимум на шесть категорий [Philipp Schmid and Cornelia Betsch, «Effective Strategies for Rebutting Science Denialism in Public Discussions», Nature Human Behavior 3 (2019): 931–39.]. Вот их позиции: 1) выбросы СО2 не растут; 2) даже если выбрасывается все больше СО2, никакого потепления нет; 3) даже если глобальное потепление существует, у него естественные причины; 4) даже если люди виновны в глобальном потеплении, их влияние минимально; 5) даже если в глобальном потеплении виновны люди, от него не будет вреда; 6) прежде чем ситуация заметно ухудшится, мы как-нибудь адаптируемся или решим проблему. Согласно экспериментам, предоставляя публичную платформу тем, кто отрицает научные данные, мы способствуем распространению ложных мнений, поэтому необходимо опровержение их доводов или методов.
333
Anne Marthe van der Bles et al., «The Effects of Communicating Uncertainty on Public Trust in Facts and Numbers», PNAS 117 (2020): 7672–83.
334
Uma R. Karmarkar and Zakary L. Tormala, «Believe Me, I Have No Idea What I’m Talking About: The Effects of Source Certainty on Consumer Involvement and Persuasion», Journal of Consumer Research 36 (2010): 1033–49.
335
Tania Lombrozo, «In Science Headlines, Should Nuance Trump Sensation?», NPR, August 3, 2015, www.npr.org/sections/13.7/2015/08/03/428984912/in-science-headlines-should-nuance-trump-sensation.
336
Vincenzo Solfrizzi et al., «Coffee Consumption Habits and the Risk of Mild Cognitive Impairment: The Italian Longitudinal Study on Aging», Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease 47 (2015): 889–99.
337
Ariana Eunjung Cha, «Yesterday’s Coffee Science: It’s Good for the Brain. Today: Not So Fast …*» Washington Post, August 28, 2015, www.washingtonpost.com/news/to-your-health/wp/2015/07/30/yesterdays-coffee-science-its-good-for-the-brain-today-not-so-fast.
338
«Do Scientists Agree on Climate Change?», NASA, https://climate.nasa.gov/faq/17/do-scientists-agree-on-climate-change; John Cook et al., «Consensus on Consensus: A Synthesis of Consensus Estimates on Human-Caused Global Warming», Environmental Research Letters 11 (2016): 048002; David Herring, «Isn’t There a Lot of Disagreement among Climate Scientists about Global Warming?», ClimateWatch Magazine, February 3, 2020, www.climate.gov/news-features/climate-qa/isnt-there-lot-disagreement-among-climate-scientists-about-global-warming.
339
В обсуждениях климатических изменений репортерам и активистам подчас тоже не хватает сложности. Пессимистический посыл взбудоражит тех, кто боится, что планета сгорит, но, согласно исследованиям, к действиям и выступлениям в защиту эффективнее стимулируют потенциальные блага для общества, такие как экономический и научный прогресс и повышение нравственности и отзывчивости у населения. Люди в диапазоне от обеспокоенных до сомневающихся скорее перейдут к действиям, если поверят, что их дела приведут к измеримым результатам. По данным исследований, помимо того, чтобы апеллировать к либеральным ценностям вроде сострадания и справедливости, журналистам стоило бы причислять к патриотизму и другие, например защиту свободы, и более консервативные: сохранение неприкосновенности природы или защиту планеты.
340
Carolyn Gramling, «Climate Models Agree Things Will Get Bad. Capturing Just How Bad Is Tricky», ScienceNews, January 7, 2020, www.science news.org/article/why-climate-change-models-disagree-earth-worst-case-scenarios.
341
Troy H. Campbell and Aaron C. Kay, «Solution Aversion: On the Relation between Ideology and Motivated Disbelief», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 107 (2014): 809–24.
342
Paul G. Bain et al., «Co-Benefits of Addressing Climate Change Can Motivate Action around the World», Nature Climate Change 6 (2016): 154–57.
343
Matthew Feinberg and Robb Willer, «The Moral Roots of Environmental Attitudes», Psychological Science 24 (2013): 56–62.
344
Christopher Wolsko, Hector Ariceaga, and Jesse Seiden, «Red, White, and Blue Enough to Be Green: Effects of Moral Framing on Climate Change Attitudes and Conservation Behaviors», Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 65 (2016): 7–19.
345
Mary Annaise Heglar, «I Work in the Environmental Movement. I Don’t Care If You Recycle», Vox, May 28, 2019, www.vox.com/the-highlight/2019/5/28/18629833/climate-change-2019-green-new-deal; Bob Berwyn, «Can Planting a Trillion Trees Stop Climate Change? Scientists Say It’s a Lot More Complicated», Inside Climate News, May 27, 2020, insideclimatenews.org/news/26052020/trillion-trees-climate-change?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIrb6n1qHF6gIVFInICh2kggWNEAAYAiAAEgI-sPD_BwE.
346
Lewis Bott et al., «Caveats in Science-Based News Stories Communicate Caution without Lowering Interest», Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied 25 (2019): 517–42.
347
See, for example, Ute Hülsheger, Neil R. Anderson, and Jesus F. Salgado, «Team-Level Predictors of Innovation at Work: A Comprehensive Meta-analysis Spanning Three Decades of Research», Journal of Applied Psychology 94 (2009): 1128–45; Cristian L. Dezsö and David Gaddis Ross, «Does Female Representation in Top Management Improve Firm Performance? A Panel Data Investigation», Strategic Management Journal 33 (2012): 1072–89; Samuel R. Sommers, «On Racial Diversity and Group Decision Making: Identifying Multiple Effects of Racial Composition on Jury Deliberations», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90 (2006): 597–612; Denise Lewin Loyd et al., «Social Category Diversity Promotes Premeeting Elaboration: The Role of Relationship Focus», Organization Science 24 (2013): 757–72.
348
Elizabeth Mannix and Margaret A. Neale, «What Differences Make a Difference? The Promise and Reality of Diverse Teams in Organizations», Psychological Science in the Public Interest 6 (2005): 31–55.
349
Неоднозначность иногда остается незамеченной. Недавно мы с коллегами опубликовали статью под названием The Mixed Effects of Online Diversity Training («Смешанные эффекты онлайн-тренинга по разнообразию» [Edward H. Chang et al., «The Mixed Effects of Online Diversity Training», PNAS 116 (2019): 7778–83.]). Мне казалось очевидным, что мы пишем о сложности тренингов по межгрупповому взаимодействию, но, судя по комментариям, одни восприняли статью как аргумент в пользу тренингов, а другие — как подтверждение их бесполезности. Предвзятость подтверждения и предубеждение желательности живут и здравствуют.
350
Lisa Leslie, «What Makes a Workplace Diversity Program Successful?», Center for Positive Organizations, January 22, 2020, positiveorgs.bus.umich.edu/news/what-makes-a-workplace-diversity-program-successful.
351
Согласно ряду экспериментов, признание парадоксов и противоречий в противовес избеганию стимулирует появление креативных идей и решений [Ella Miron-Spektor, Francesca Gino, and Linda Argote, «Paradoxical Frames and Creative Sparks: Enhancing Individual Creativity through Conflict and Integration», Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 116 (2011): 229–40; Dustin J. Sleesman, «Pushing Through the Tension While Stuck in the Mud: Paradox Mindset and Escalation of Commitment», Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 155 (2019): 83–96.]. Однако авторы других исследований выяснили, что, признавая парадоксы и противоречия, люди чаще держатся за ошибочные убеждения и бессмысленные поступки. Видимо, парадоксу надо еще некоторое время мариноваться.
352
Julian Matthews, «A Cognitive Scientist Explains Why Humans Are So Susceptible to Fake News and Misinformation», NiemanLab, April 17, 2019, www.niemanlab.org/2019/04/a-cognitive-scientist-explains-why-humans-are-so-susceptible-to-fake-news-and-misinformation.
353
Daniel Goleman, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ (New York: Bantam Books, 1995) and «What Makes a Leader?», Harvard Business Review, January 2004; Jordan B. Peterson, «There Is No Such Thing as EQ», Quora, August 22, 2019, www.quora.com/What-is-more-beneficial-in-all-aspects-of-life-a-high-EQ-or-IQ-This-question-is-based-on-the-assumption-that-only-your-EQ-or-IQ-is-high-with-the-other-being-average-or-below-this-average.
354
Dana L. Joseph and Daniel A. Newman, «Emotional Intelligence: An Integrative Meta-analysis and Cascading Model», Journal of Applied Psychology 95 (2010): 54–78; Dana L. Joseph et al., «Why Does Self-Reported EI Predict Job Performance? A Meta-analytic Investigation of Mixed EI», Journal of Applied Psychology 100 (2015): 298–342.
355
Joseph and Newman, «Emotional Intelligence».
356
Adam Grant, «Emotional Intelligence Is Overrated», LinkedIn, September 30, 2014, www.linkedin.com/pulse/20140930125543-69244073-emotional-intelligence-is-overrated.
357
Olga Khazan, «The Myth of ‘Learning Styles,’» The Atlantic, April 11, 2018, www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/04/the-myth-of-learning-styles/557687.
358
Harold Pashler et al., «Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence», Psychological Science in the Public Interest 9 (2008): 105–19.
359
Adam Grant, «Can We End the Meditation Madness?», New York Times, October 9, 2015, www.nytimes.com/2015/10/10/opinion/can-we-end-the-meditation-madness.html.
360
Adam Grant, «MBTI, If You Want Me Back, You Need to Change Too», Medium, November 17, 2015, medium.com/@AdamMGrant/mbti-if-you-want-me-back-you-need-to-change-too-c7f1a7b6970; Adam Grant, «Say Goodbye to MBTI, the Fad That Won’t Die», LinkedIn, September 17, 2013, www.linkedin.com/pulse/20130917155206-69244073-say-goodbye-to-mbti-the-fad-that-won-t-die.
361
Adam Grant, «The Fine Line between Helpful and Harmful Authenticity»,New York Times, April 10, 2020, www.nytimes.com/2020/04/10/smarter-living/the-fine-line-between-helpful-and-harmful-authenticity.html; Adam Grant, «Unless You’re Oprah, ‘Be Yourself’ Is Terrible Advice», New York Times, June 4, 2016, www.nytimes.com/2016/06/05/opinion/sunday/unless-youre-oprah-be-yourself-is-terrible-advice.html.
362
John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1971).
363
Rhia Catapano, Zakary L. Tormala, and Derek D. Rucker, «Perspective Taking and Self-Persuasion: Why ‘Putting Yourself in Their Shoes’ Reduces Openness to Attitude Change», Psychological Science 30 (2019): 424–35.
364
Tal Eyal, Mary Steffel, and Nicholas Epley, «Perspective Mistaking: Accurately Understanding the Mind of Another Requires Getting Perspective, Not Taking Perspective», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 114 (2018): 547–71.
365
Yascha Mounk, «Republicans Don’t Understand Democrats— and Democrats Don’t Understand Republicans», The Atlantic, June 23, 2019, www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/06/republicans-and-democrats-dont-understand-each-other/592324.
366
Julian J. Zlatev, «I May Not Agree with You, but I Trust You: Caring about Social Issues Signals Integrity», Psychological Science 30 (2019): 880–92.
367
Corinne Bendersky, «Resolving Ideological Conflicts by Affirming Opponents’ Status: The Tea Party, Obamacare and the 2013 Government Shutdown», Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 53 (2014): 163–68.
368
Patti Williams and Jennifer L. Aaker, «Can Mixed Emotions Peacefully Coexist?», Journal of Consumer Research 28 (2002): 636–49.
369
Оказывается, молодые американцы английского происхождения чаще старших и американцев азиатского происхождения игнорируют смешанные эмоции, например радость и грусть одновременно [Beca Grimm, «11 Feelings There Are No Words for in English», Bustle, July 15, 2015, www.bustle.com/articles/97413-11-feelings-there-are-no-words-for-in-english-for-all-you-emotional-word-nerds-out.]. Разница, похоже, в способности принимать двойственность и парадоксы. Думаю, нам не хватает слов для выражения двойственных эмоций. У японцев, к примеру, есть выражение «кои но йокан», означающее, что с первого взгляда любовь не возникла, но может появиться, если узнать друг друга поближе. Инуиты словом «иктсуарпок» называют смесь предвкушения и волнения перед приездом долгожданного гостя [Bill Demain et al., «51 Wonderful Words with No English Equivalent», Mental Floss, December 14, 2015, www.mentalfloss.com/article/50698/38-wonderful-foreign-words-we-could-use-english.]. Про ощущение, когда уже сыт, но все равно ешь, потому что очень вкусно, грузины говорят «шемомеджамо». Мое любимое слово — немецкое «куммершпек», оно означает лишний вес от переедания на нервной почве, буквально переводится как «сало печали» [Kate Bratskeir, «‘Kummerspeck,’ or Grief Bacon, Is the German Word for What Happens When You Eat When You’re Sad», Mic, December 19, 2017, www.mic.com/articles/186933/kummerspeck-or-grief-bacon-is-the-german-word-for-eating-when-sad.]. В эмоциональных беседах оно очень пригодилось бы: «Не хотел вас обидеть, просто сейчас я работаю, преодолевая сало печали».
370
Ibram X. Kendi, How to Be an Antiracist (New York: One World, 2019).
371
Don Lemon, «She Called Police on Him in Central Park. Hear His Response», CNN, May 27, 2020, www.cnn.com/videos/us/2020/05/27/christian-cooper-central-park-video-lemon-ctn-sot-intv-vpx.cnn.
372
Grant Allen [pseud. Olive Pratt Rayner], Rosalba: The Story of Her Development (London: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1899).
373
Personal interview with Erin McCarthy, January 14, 2020; Scott Anderson, «Wisconsin National Teacher of the Year Nominee Is from Greendale», Patch, August 20, 2019, patch.com/wisconsin/greendale/wisconsin-national-teacher-year-nominee-greendale.
374
Deborah Kelemen, «The Magic of Mechanism: Explanation-Based Instruction on Counterintuitive Concepts in Early Childhood», Perspectives on Psychological Science 14 (2019): 510–22.
375
Sam Wineburg, Daisy Martin, and Chauncey Monte-Sano, Reading Like a Historian (New York: Teachers College Press, 2013).
376
«Teacher Materials and Resources», Historical Thinking Matters, http://historicalthinkingmatters.org/teachers.
377
Elizabeth Emery, «Have Students Interview Someone They Disagree With», Heterodox Academy, February 11, 2020, heterodoxacademy.org/viewpoint-diversity-students-interview-someone.
378
Annabelle Timsit, «In the Age of Fake News, Here’s How Schools Are Teaching Kids to Think Like Fact-Checkers», Quartz, February 12, 2019, qz.com/1533747/in-the-age-of-fake-news-heres-how-schools-are-teaching-kids-to-think-like-fact-checkers.
379
Rose Troup Buchanan, «King Tutankhamun Did Not Die in Chariot Crash, Virtual Autopsy Reveals», Independent, October 20, 2014, www.independent.co.uk/news/science/king-tutankhamun-did-not-die-in-chariot-crash-virtual-autopsy-reveals-9806586.html.
380
Brian Resnick, «Farts: Which Animals Do, Which Don’t, and Why», Vox, October 19, 2018, www.vox.com/science-and-health/2018/4/3/17188186/does-it-fart-book-animal-farts-dinosaur-farts.
381
Louis Deslauriers et al., «Measuring Actual Learning versus Feeling of Learning in Response to Being Actively Engaged in the Classroom», PNAS 116 (2019): 19251–57.
382
Scott Freeman et al., «Active Learning Increases Student Performance in Science, Engineering, and Mathematics», PNAS 111 (2014): 8410–15.
383
Jochen I. Menges et al., «The Awestruck Effect: Followers Suppress Emotion Expression in Response to Charismatic but Not Individually Considerate Leadership», Leadership Quarterly 26 (2015): 626–40.
384
Adam Grant, «The Dark Side of Emotional Intelligence», The Atlantic, January 2, 2014, www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2014/01/the-dark-side-of-emotional-intelligence/282720.
385
M. Stains et al., «Anatomy of STEM Teaching in North American Universities», Science 359 (2018): 1468–70.
386
Grant Wiggins, «Why Do So Many HS History Teachers Lecture So Much?», April 24, 2015, rantwiggins.wordpress.com/2015/04/24/why-do-so-many-hs-history-teachers-lecture-so-much.
387
По некоторым данным, ученики средних классов набирают больше баллов в тестах по математике и естественным наукам, если учителя больше времени отводят лекциям, чем активному обучению [Guido Schwerdt and Amelie C. Wupperman, «Is Traditional Teaching Really All That Bad? A Within-Student Between-Subject Approach», Economics of Education Review 30 (2011): 365–79.]. Пока неизвестно, действительно ли для юных учащихся лекции эффективнее или дело в неправильном использовании методов активного обучения.
388
Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (New York: Basic Books, 1974).
389
Нозик предполагал, что большинство откажется от машины [Felipe De Brigard, «If You Like It, Does It Matter If It’s Real?», Philosophical Psychology 23 (2010): 43–57.], потому что человек предпочитает быть и делать, а не просто получать опыт, и не захочет ограничиваться воображением и возможностями симуляции. В последующие годы философы утверждали, что если бы мы и отказались от машины, то не по этим причинам, а из-за отклонения в сторону статус-кво — ведь нам пришлось бы покинуть знакомую реальность. Для проверки гипотезы изменили условия и провели эксперимент. Представьте, что в один прекрасный день вы проснулись и узнали, что вся ваша жизнь — это опыт, который сгенерирован машиной, созданной много лет назад, и теперь вы можете отключиться от нее или вернуться обратно. При таких условиях 46% заявили, что хотели бы снова подключиться к машине. Если «реальность» — это жизнь художника-мультимиллионера в Монако, вернуться в машину пожелали 50%. Похоже, остальные предпочитают знакомый виртуальный мир незнакомой реальности или просто не любят искусство, деньги и конституционную монархию.
390
Asahina Robert, «The Inquisitive Robert Nozick», New York Times, September 20, 1981, www.nytimes.com/1981/09/20/books/the-inquisitive-robert-nozick.html.
391
Ken Gewertz, «Philosopher Nozick Dies at 63», Harvard Gazette, January 17, 2002, news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2002/01/philosopher-nozick-dies-at-63; see also Hilary Putnam et al., «Robert Nozick: Memorial Minute», Harvard Gazette, May 6, 2004, news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2004/05/robert-nozick.
392
Joachim Stoeber and Kathleen Otto, «Positive Conceptions of Perfectionism: Approaches, Evidence, Challenges», Personality and Social Psychology Review 10 (2006): 295–319.
393
Dana Harari et al., «Is Perfect Good? A Meta-analysis of Perfectionism in the Workplace», Journal of Applied Psychology 103 (2018): 1121–44.
394
Philip L. Roth et al., «Meta-analyzing the Relationship between Grades and Job Performance», Journal of Applied Psychology 81 (1996): 548–56.
395
Adam Grant, «What Straight-A Students Get Wrong», New York Times, December 8, 2018, www.nytimes.com/2018/12/08/opinion/college-gpa-career-success.html.
396
Donald W. Mackinnon, «The Nature and Nurture of Creative Talent», American Psychologist 17 (1962): 484–95.
397
Karen Arnold, Lives of Promise: What Becomes of High School Valedictorians (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995).
398
Mike Kaiser, «This Wharton Senior’s Letter Writing Project Gets Global Attention», Wharton School, February 17, 2016, www.wharton.upenn.edu/story/wharton-seniors-letter-writing-project-gets-global-attention.
399
Aloysius Wei Lun Koh, Sze Chi Lee, and Stephen Wee Hun Lim, «The Learning Benefits of Teaching: A Retrieval Practice Hypothesis», Applied Cognitive Psychology 32 (2018): 401–10; Logan Fiorella and Richard E. Mayer, «The Relative Benefits of Learning by Teaching and Teaching Expectancy», Contemporary Educational Psychology 38 (2013): 281–88; Robert B. Zajonc and Patricia R. Mullally, «Birth Order: Reconciling Conflicting Effects», American Psychologist 52 (1997): 685–99; Peter A. Cohen, James A. Kulik, and Chen-Lin C. Kulik, «Educational Outcomes of Tutoring: A Meta-analysis of Findings», American Educational Research Journal 19 (1982): 237–48.
400
Personal interview with Ron Berger, October 29, 2019; Ron Berger, An Ethic of Excellence: Building a Culture of Craftsmanship with Students (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2003); Ron Berger, Leah Rugen, and Libby Woodfin, Leaders of Their Own Learning: Transforming Schools through Student-Engaged Assessment (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2014).
401
Kirill Fayn et al., «Confused or Curious? Openness/Intellect Predicts More Positive Interest-Confusion Relations», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 117 (2019): 1016–33.
402
Eleanor Duckworth, The Having of Wonderful Ideas (New York: Teachers College Press, 2006).
403
Elisabeth Vogl et al., «Surprised-Curious-Confused: Epistemic Emotions and Knowledge Exploration», Emotion 20 (2020): 625–41.
404
Ron Berger, «Critique and Feedback— The Story of Austin’s Butterfly», December 8, 2012, www.youtube.com/watch?v=hqh1MRWZjms.
405
Kurt Vonnegut, Player Piano (New York: Dial Press, 1952/2006).
406
Tony Reichhardt, «The Spacewalk That Almost Killed Him», Air & Space Magazine, May 2014, www.airspacemag.com/space/spacewalk-almost-killed-him-180950135/?all.
407
Matej Černe et al., «What Goes Around Comes Around: Knowledge Hiding, Perceived Motivational Climate, and Creativity», Academy of Management Journal 57 (2014): 172–92; Markus Baer and Michael Frese, «Innovation Is Not Enough: Climates for Initiative and Psychological Safety, Process Innovations, and Firm Performance», Journal of Organizational Behavior 24 (2003): 45–68.
408
Julia Rozovsky, «The Five Keys to a Successful Google Team», re: Work, November 17, 2015, rework.withgoogle.com/blog/five-keys-to-a-successful-google-team.
409
Anita L. Tucker and Amy C. Edmondson, «Why Hospitals Don’t Learn from Failures: Organizational and Psychological Dynamics That Inhibit System Change», California Management Review 45 (2003): 55–72; Amy C. Edmondson, «Learning from Mistakes Is Easier Said Than Done: Group and Organizational Influences on the Detection and Correction of Human Error», Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 40 (1996): 5–28.
410
William A. Kahn, «Psychological Conditions of Personal Engagement and Disengagement at Work», Academy of Management Journal 33 (1990): 692–724.
411
Amy C. Edmondson, «How Fearless Organizations Succeed», strategy+ business, November 14, 2018, www.strategy-business.com/article/How-Fearless-Organizations-Succeed.
412
Amy Edmondson, «Psychological Safety and Learning Behavior in Work Teams», Administrative Science Quarterly 44 (1999): 350–83.
413
Paul W. Mulvey, John F. Veiga, and Priscilla M. Elsass, «When Teammates Raise a White Flag», Academy of Management Perspectives 10 (1996): 40–49.
414
Howard Berkes, «30 Years after Explosion, Challenger Engineer Still Blames Himself», NPR, January 28, 2016, www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/01/28/464744781/30-years-after-disaster-challenger-engineer-still-blames-himself.
415
Joel Bach, «Engineer Sounded Warnings for Columbia», ABC News, January 7, 2006, abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=97600&page=1.
416
Personal interview with Ellen Ochoa, December 12, 2019.
417
Personal interview with Chris Hansen, November 12, 2019.
418
Constantinos G. V. Coutifaris and Adam M. Grant, «Taking Your Team Behind the Curtain: The Effects of Leader Feedback-Sharing, Feedback-Seeking, and Humility on Team Psychological Safety Over Time» (working paper, 2020).
419
Celia Moore et al., «The Advantage of Being Oneself: The Role of Applicant Self-Verification in Organizational Hiring Decisions», Journal of Applied Psychology 102 (2017): 1493–513.
420
Wharton Follies, «Mean Reviews: Professor Edition», March 22, 2015, www.youtube.com/watch?v=COOaEVSu6ms&t=3s.
421
Говорить о недостатках рискованно, если предварительно не доказать свою компетентность [Kerry Roberts Gibson, Dana Harari, and Jennifer Carson Marr, «When Sharing Hurts: How and Why Self-Disclosing Weakness Undermines the Task-Oriented Relationships of Higher-Status Disclosers», Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 144 (2018): 25–43.]. В исследовании с участием юристов и учителей обнаружилось, что, когда они ничего не скрывали, их шансы на трудоустройство повышались только при компетентности не ниже 90%, а иначе — наоборот, понижались. При компетентности юристов ниже 50% и учителей — ниже 25% они реже получали работу, когда честно говорили о себе. Согласно экспериментам, пока человек не доказал свою компетентность, он внушает меньше уважения, сообщая о своих слабых сторонах. В придачу к некомпетентности он производит впечатление неуверенного в себе.
422
Itamar Simonson and Barry M. Staw, «Deescalation Strategies: A Comparison of Techniques for Reducing Commitment to Losing Courses of Action», Journal of Applied Psychology 77 (1992): 419–26; Jennifer S. Lerner and Philip E. Tetlock, «Accounting for the Effects of Accountability», Psychological Bulletin 125 (1999): 255–75.
423
Amy C. Edmondson, «The Competitive Imperative of Learning», Harvard Business Review, July-August 2008, hbr.org/2008/07/the-competitive-imperative-of-learning.
424
Jeff Bezos, «2016 Letter to Shareholders», www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1018724/000119312517120198/d373368dex991.htm.
425
Barry M. Staw, Sigal G. Barsade, and Kenneth W. Koput, «Escalation at the Credit Window: A Longitudinal Study of Bank Executives’ Recognition and Write-Off of Problem Loans», Journal of Applied Psychology 82 (1997): 130–42.
426
Jack Handey, «My First Day in Hell», New Yorker, October 23, 2006, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2006/10/30/my-first-day-in-hell.
427
William B. Swann Jr. and Peter J. Rentfrow, «Blirtatiousness: Cognitive, Behavioral, and Physiological Consequences of Rapid Responding», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (2001): 1160–75.
428
Locke and Latham, «Building a Practically Useful Theory».
429
Peter M. Gollwitzer, «Implementation Intentions: Strong Effects of Simple Plans», American Psychologist 54 (1999): 493–503.
430
James Y. Shah and Arie W. Kruglanski, «Forgetting All Else: On the Antecedents and Consequences of Goal Shielding», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002): 1261–80.
431
Barry M. Staw and Jerry Ross, «Understanding Behavior in Escalation Situations», Science 246 (1989): 216–20.
432
Dustin J. Sleesman et al., «Putting Escalation of Commitment in Context: A Multilevel Review and Analysis», Academy of Management Annals 12 (2018): 178–207.
433
Colin F. Camerer and Roberto A. Weber, «The Econometrics and Behavioral Economics of Escalation of Commitment: A Re-examination of Staw and Hoang’s NBA Data», Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 39 (1999): 59–82.
434
Glen Whyte, «Escalating Commitment in Individual and Group Decision Making: A Prospect Theory Approach», Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 54 (1993): 430–55.
435
Joel Brockner, «The Escalation of Commitment to a Failing Course of Action: Toward Theoretical Progress», Academy of Management Review 17 (1992): 39–61.
436
Dustin J. Sleesman et al., «Cleaning Up the Big Muddy: A Meta-analytic Review of the Determinants of Escalation of Commitment», Academy of Management Journal 55 (2012): 541–62.
437
Jon M. Jachimowicz et al., «Why Grit Requires Perseverance and Passion to Positively Predict Performance», PNAS 115 (2018): 9980–85; Angela Duckworth and James J. Gross, «Self-Control and Grit: Related but Separable Determinants of Success», Current Directions in Psychological Science 23 (2014): 319–25.
438
Larbi Alaoui and Christian Fons-Rosen, «Know When to Fold ’Em: The Grit Factor», Universitat Pompeu Fabra: Barcela GSE Working Paper Series (2018).
439
Gale M. Lucas et al., «When the Going Gets Tough: Grit Predicts Costly Perseverance», Journal of Research in Personality 59 (2015): 15–22; see also Henry Moon, «The Two Faces of Conscientiousness: Duty and Achievement Striving in Escalation of Commitment Dilemmas», Journal of Applied Psychology 86 (2001): 533–40.
440
Lee Crust, Christian Swann, and Jacquelyn Allen-Collinson, «The Thin Line: A Phenomenological Study of Mental Toughness and Decision Making in Elite High-Altitude Mountaineers», Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 38 (2016): 598–611.
441
Wim Meeus et al., «Patterns of Adolescent Identity Development: Review of Literature and Longitudinal Analysis», Developmental eview 19 (1999): 419–61.
442
Otilia Obodaru, «The Self Not Taken: How Alternative Selves Develop and How They Influence Our Professional Lives», Academy of Management Review 37 (2017): 523–53.
443
Michelle Obama, Becoming (New York: Crown, 2018).
444
У меня еще одна претензия к этому вопросу: из-за него дети считают работу главной в своей жизни. Единственным социально одобряемым ответом считается название профессии. Взрослые ожидают, что дети мечтают о великом, например полететь в космос, стать героическим пожарным или знаменитым режиссером. Непонятно, что говорить, если от работы ждешь только стабильности и хочешь быть хорошим отцом или матерью или просто достойным и интересным человеком. Я зарабатываю, изучая виды деятельности, и тем не менее против того, чтобы идентифицировать себя только с этим занятием.
445
Shoshana R. Dobrow, «Dynamics of Callings: A Longitudinal Study of Musicians», Journal of Organizational Behavior 34 (2013): 431–52.
446
Justin M. Berg, Adam M. Grant, and Victoria Johnson, «When Callings Are Calling: Crafting Work and Leisure in Pursuit of Unanswered Occupational Callings», Organization Science 21 (2010): 973–94.
447
Chris Rock, Tamborine, directed by Bo Burnham, Netflix, 2018.
448
Ryan F. Lei et al., «Children Lose Confidence in Their Potential to ‘Be Scientists,’ but Not in Their Capacity to ‘Do Science,’» Developmental Science 22 (2019): e12837.
449
Marjorie Rhodes, Amanda Cardarelli, and Sarah-Jane Leslie, «Asking Young Children to ‘Do Science’ Instead of ‘Be Scientists’ Increases Science Engagement in a Randomized Field Experiment», PNAS 117 (2020): 9808–14.
450
Alison Doyle, «How Often Do People Change Jobs during a Lifetime?», The Balance Careers, June 15, 2020, www.thebalancecareers.com/how-often-do-people-change-jobs-2060467.
451
Shoshana R. Dobrow and Jennifer Tosti-Kharas, «Listen to Your Heart? Calling and Receptivity to Career Advice», Journal of Career Assessment 20 (2012): 264–80.
452
Ian McGregor et al., «Compensatory Conviction in the Face of Personal Uncertainty: Going to Extremes and Being Oneself», Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 80 (2001): 472–88.
453
Есть данные, что выпускники университетов Англии и Уэльса чаще меняют профессию, чем те, кто учился в Шотландии. Дело не в культуре, а во времени. В Англии и Уэльсе [Ofer Malamud, «Breadth Versus Depth: The Timing of Specialization in Higher Education», Labour 24 (2010): 359–90.] специализацию выбирают в старших классах и у студентов меньше возможностей пересмотреть решение во время обучения в колледже. В Шотландии выбор специализации происходит не раньше третьего курса, и у студентов достаточно времени переосмыслить планы и развить новые интересы. Они чаще выбирают предметы, которые не изучали в школе, и их выбор оказывается точнее.
454
Изначально я рекомендовал студентам проводить ревизию карьеры для предотвращения туннельного восприятия, но потом понял, что она полезна тем, кто находится на противоположном конце спектра переосмысления, — склонным слишком много думать. Когда таким людям не нравится их работа, они меньше заняты мыслями о том, чтобы уволиться, откладывая их на период ревизии, о которой дважды в год напоминает календарь.
455
Herminia Ibarra, Working Identity: Unconventional Strategies for Reinventing Your Career (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2003).
456
Herminia Ibarra, «Provisional Selves: Experimenting with Image and Identity in Professional Adaptation», Administrative Science Quarterly 44 (1999): 764–91.
457
Iris B. Mauss et al., «Can Seeking Happiness Make People Unhappy? Paradoxical Effects of Valuing Happiness», Emotion 11 (2011): 807–15.
458
Brett Q. Ford et al., «Desperately Seeking Happiness: Valuing Happiness Is Associated with Symptoms and Diagnosis of Depression», Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 33 (2014): 890–905.
459
Lucy McGuirk et al., «Does a Culture of Happiness Increase Rumination Over Failure?», Emotion 18 (2018): 755–64.
460
Ed Diener, Ed Sandvik, and William Pavot, «Happiness Is the Frequency, Not the Intensity, of Positive versus Negative Affect», in Subjective Well-Being: An Interdisciplinary Perspective, ed. Fritz Strack, Michael Argyle, and Norbert Schwartz (New York: Pergamon, 1991).
461
Barbara L. Fredrickson et al., «A Functional Genomic Perspective on Human Well-Being», PNAS 110 (2013): 13684–89; Emily Esfahani Smith, «Meaning Is Healthier Than Happiness», The Atlantic, August 1, 2013, www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/08/meaning-is-healthier-than-happiness/278250.
462
Jon M. Jachimowicz et al., «Igniting Passion from Within: How Lay Beliefs Guide the Pursuit of Work Passion and Influence Turnover», PsyArXiv 10.31234/osf.io/qj6y9, last revised July 2, 2018, https://psyarxiv.com/qj6y9/.
463
Brett Q. Ford et al., «Culture Shapes Whether the Pursuit of Happiness Predicts Higher or Lower Well-Being», Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 144 (2015): 1053–62.
464
Saturday Night Live, season 44, episode 19, «Adam Sandler», May 4, 2019, NBC.
465
Elizabeth W. Dunn, Timothy D. Wilson, and Daniel T. Gilbert, «Location, Location, Location: The Misprediction of Satisfaction in Housing Lotteries», Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 29 (2003): 1421–32; Kent C. H. Lam et al., «Cultural Differences in Affective Forecasting: The Role of Focalism», Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31 (2005): 1296–309.
466
Ernest Hemingway, The Sun Also Rises (New York: Scribner, 1926/2014).
467
Kennon M. Sheldon and Sonja Lyubomirsky, «Achieving Sustainable Gains in Happiness: Change Your Actions, Not Your Circumstances», Journal of Happiness Studies 7 (2006): 55–86; Kennon M. Sheldon and Sonja Lyubomirsky, «Change Your Actions, Not Your Circumstances: An Experimental Test of the Sustainable Happiness Model», in Happiness, Economics, and Politics: Towards a Multi-disciplinary Approach, ed. Amitava Krishna Dutt and Benjamin Radcliff (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2009).
468
Jane E. Dutton and Belle Rose Ragins, Exploring Positive Relationships at Work: Building a Theoretical and Research Foundation (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2007).
469
Paul A. O’Keefe, Carol S. Dweck, and Gregory M. Walton, «Implicit Theories of Interest: Finding Your Passion or Developing It?», Psychological Science 29 (2018): 1653–64.
470
Michael M. Gielnik et al., «‘I Put in Effort, Therefore I Am Passionate’: Investigating the Path from Effort to Passion in Entrepreneurship», Academy of Management Journal 58 (2015): 1012–31.
471
Adam M. Grant, «The Significance of Task Significance: Job Performance Effects, Relational Mechanisms, and Boundary Conditions», Journal of Applied Psychology 93 (2008): 108–24; Stephen E. Humphrey, Jennifer D. Nahrgang, and Frederick P. Morgeson, «Integrating Motivational, Social, and Contextual Work Design Features: A Meta-analytic Summary and Theoretical Extension of the Work Design Literature», Journal of Applied Psychology 92 (2007): 1332–56; Brent D. Rosso, Kathryn H. Dekas, and Amy Wrzesniewski, «On the Meaning of Work: A Theoretical Integration and Review», Research in Organizational Behavior 30 (2010): 91–127.
472
Dan P. McAdams, «Generativity in Midlife», Handbook of Midlife Development, ed. Margie E. Lachman (New York: Wiley, 2001).
473
John Stuart Mill, Autobiography (New York: Penguin Classics, 1883/1990).
474
Ludwig von Bertalanffy, General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications (New York: Braziller, 1969).
475
Arie W. Kruglanski et al., «The Architecture of Goal Systems: Multifinality, Equifinality, and Counterfinality in Means-Ends Relations», Advances in Motivation Science 2 (2015): 69–98; Dante Cicchetti and Fred A. Rogosch, «Equifinality and Multifinality in Developmental Psychopathology», Development and Psychopathology 8 (1996): 597–600.
476
Nancy Groves, «EL Doctorow in Quotes: 15 of His Best», Guardian, July 21, 2015, www.theguardian.com/books/2015/jul/22/el-doctorow-in-quotes-15-of-his-best.
477
Amy Wrzesniewski and Jane E. Dutton, «Crafting a Job: Revisioning Employees as Active Crafters of Their Work», Academy of Management Review 26 (2001): 179–201.
478
Amy Wrzesniewski and Jane Dutton, «Having a Calling and Crafting a Job: The Case of Candice Billups», William Davidson Institute, University of Michigan, November 12, 2009.
479
Amy Wrzesniewski, Jane E. Dutton, and Gelaye Debebe, «Interpersonal Sensemaking and the Meaning of Work», Research in Organizational Behavior 25 (2003): 93–135.
480
«A World without Bosses», WorkLife with Adam Grant, April 11, 2018.
481
Candace Falk, Barry Pateman, and Jessica Moran, eds., Emma Goldman, vol. 2, A Documentary History of the American Years (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2008).
482
Richard Brautigan, Trout Fishing in America (New York: Delta, 1967).
483
Max K. Planck, Scientific Autobiography and Other Papers (New York: Greenwood, 1950/1968).
484
«Societies Change Their Minds Faster Than People Do», Economist, October 31, 2019, www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2019/10/31/societies-change-their-minds-faster-than-people-do.
485
William Whewell, The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences (New York: Johnson, 1840/1967); «William Whewell», Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, December 23, 2000, last revised September 22, 2017, plato.stanford.edu/entries/whewell.
486
Franklin D. Roosevelt, «Address at Oglethorpe University», May 22, 1932, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/address-oglethorpe-university-atlanta-georgia.
487
«Hoover and Roosevelt», New York Times, May 24, 1932, www.nytimes.com/1932/05/24/archives/hoover-and-roosevelt.html.
488
Paul Stephen Hudson, «A Call for ‘Bold Persistent Experimentation’: FDR’s Oglethorpe University Commencement Address, 1932», Georgia Historical Quarterly (Summer 1994), https://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/topics/history/related_article/progressive-era-world-war-ii-1901-1945/background-to-fdrs-ties-to-georgia/a-call-for-bold-persistent-experimentation-fdrs-oglethorpe-university-comme.
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