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1
Íà ðóññêîì ÿçûêå èçäàíà ïîä íàçâàíèåì «Ñîêðîâåííîå ñêàçàíèå». Ñì.: Ìîíãîëüñêèé îáûäåííûé èçáîðíèê // Ñîêðîâåííîå ñêàçàíèå. Ìîíãîëüñêàÿ õðîíèêà 1240 ã. ÞÀÍÜ ×ÀÎ ÁÈ ØÈ / Ïåðåâîä Ñ. À. Êîçèíà. — Ì.—Ë.: Èçäàòåëüñòâî ÀÍ ÑÑÑÐ, 1941. — Ò. I. Ïðèì. ïåð.
2
 ðóññêîì ïåðåâîäå «Ñáîðíèê ëåòîïèñåé». — Ïðèì. ïåð.
3
«Íàñèðîâû ðàçðÿäû» èëè «Íàñèðîâû òàáëèöû». — Ïðèì. ïåð.
4
Äåéñòâóþùèå ëèöà (ëàò.).
5
Le Strange, Baghdad pp. 264–283.
6
Wiet, Baghdad pp. 118–119.
7
Broadhurst, Travels of Ibn Jumayr p. 234.
8
Wiet, Baghdad pp. 122–127.
9
JB II pp. 618–640.
10
Morgan, Mongols pp. 129–135.
11
For the Ismailis see Lewis, Assassins; Daftary, Ismailis; Hodgson, Secret Order of Assassins.
12
RT II pp. 487–490.
13
RT II pp. 491–493.
14
Spuler, History of the Mongols pp. 115–119.
15
Sicker, Islamic World in Asendancy p. 111; Meri, Medieval Islamic Civilization p. 510.
16
Hammer-Purgstall, Geschichte Wassafs pp. 68–71; Le Strange, Baghdad.
17
Spuler, History of the Mongols pp. 120–121.
18
RT II pp. 494–499.
19
MacLeod, Library of Alexandria p. 71.
20
Hammer-Purgstall, Geschichte Wassafs pp. 72–75.
21
Wiet, Baghdad pp. 164–165.
22
Somogyi, Joseph de, A Qasida on the Destruction of Baghdad by the Mongols, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 7 (1933) pp. 41–48.
23
Spuler, History of the Mongols pp. 125–164. There is an interesting article, comparing Hulagu's sack of Baghdad with the U.S. destruction of the city some 750 years later, by Ian Frazier, 'Annals of History: Invaders: Destroying Baghdad,' in the New Yorker, 25 April 2005.
24
For the 'world island' and the 'heartland' theory see H. J. Mackinder, 'The Geographical Pivot of History,' The Geographical Journal 23 (1904) pp. 421–437; Pascal Venier, 'The Geographical Pivot of History and Early Twentieth-Century Geopolitical Culture,' The Geographical Journal 170 (2004) pp. 330–336.
25
Lattimore, Studies in Frontier History pp. 241–258.
26
Robert N. Taafe, 'The Geographical Setting,' in Sinor, Cambridge History pp. 19–40.
27
A good introduction to the 'stans' is Rashid, Jihad.
28
For this view see Cable & French, The Gobi Desert.
29
Rene Grousset, The Empire of the Steppes p. xxii had a theory that along the south-north axis trade went south and migration went north.
30
For the Altai and Tarbaghatai see Taafe, 'The Geographical Setting' in Sinor, Cambridge History pp. 24–25, 40. Cf also Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck p. 166.
31
Stewart, In the Empire p. 132: 'Sometimes the forest cuts deeply into the steppe as, for example, does the famous Utken forest on the slopes of the Kangai; sometimes the steppe penetrates northward, as do the Khakass steppes in the upper reaches of the Yenisei or the broad trans-Baikal steppe'; Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom p. 18.
32
Mount Burqan Qaldun has been tentatively identified as Mount Khenti Khan in the Great Khenti range in north-eastern Mongolia (48° 50' N, 109° E): Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 229; Hue, High Road in Tartary pp. 123–127.
33
Íà àðàáñêîì ÿçûêå, ñóõèå ðóñëà ðåê èëè ðå÷íûõ äîëèí. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
34
Stewart, In The Empire p. 159. Cf also Bull, Around the Sacred Sea.
35
Owen Lattimore, 'Return to China's Northern Frontier,' The Geographical Journal 139 (June 1973) pp. 233–242.
36
For various accounts see Cable & French, Gobi Desert; Man, Gobi; Younghusband, Heart of a Continent; Thayer, Walking the Gobi.
37
Stewart, In The Empire p. 153.
38
Àððîðóò — òðîïè÷åñêîå ðàñòåíèå, ïðîèçðàñòàþùèå â Àìåðèêå, à òàêæå êðàõìàë èç íåãî. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
39
Nairne, Gilmour p. 74.
40
De Windt, From Pekin to Calais p. 107.
41
De Windt, From Pekin to Calais p. 103.
42
De Windt, From Pekin to Calais pp. 134–35.
43
Lattimore, Inner Asian Frontiers p. 12.
44
Îêîëî 0,5 ãðàäóñà ïî Öåëüñèþ. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
45
Severin, In Search of Genghis Khan p. 18.
46
Dawson, Mongol Mission pp. 5–6.
47
Íèáëüõåéì — â ãåðìàíî-ñêàíäèíàâñêîé ìèôîëîãèè îäèí èç äåâÿòè ìèðîâ, çåìëÿ ëüäîâ è òóìàíîâ, ëåäÿíûõ âåëèêàíîâ, îäèí èç ïåðâîìèðîâ, òàêæå Íèáëüõàéì, Íèôëüõåéì. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
48
Îêîëî ïëþñ 37,8° è ìèíóñ 42° ïî Öåëüñèþ. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
49
Barfield, Perilous Frontier pp. 22–23.
50
Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations, iv part 2 pp. 275–276.
51
Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom pp. 62–63.
52
For the Amur river see Du Halde, Description geographique; M. A. Peschurof, 'Description of the Amur River in Eastern Asia,' Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society 2 (1857–58).
53
For the Amur as the traditional boundary between Russia and China see Kerner, The Urge to the Sea; Stephan, Sakhalin.
54
Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom p. 87; Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations, iv part 2 p. 280.
55
Joseph F. Fletcher, 'The Mongols: Ecological and Social Perspectives,' in Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 46 (1986) pp. 11–50 (at p. 13), repr. in Fletcher, Studies on Chinese and Islamic Inner Asia.
56
For all these distinctions see (amid a vast literature) Cribb, Nomads esp. pp. 19–20, 84–112; Forde, Habitat p. 396; Johnson, Nature of Nomadism pp. 18–19; Blench, Pastoralism pp. 11–12; Helland, Five Essays.
57
R. & N. Dyson-Hudson 'Nomadic Pastoralism,' Annual Review of Anthropology 9 (1980) pp. 15–61.
58
Krader, Social Organisation pp. 282–283.
59
Barfield, Perilous Frontier pp. 22–23.
60
Jagchid & Hyer, Mongolia's Culture pp. 20–26.
61
Barfield, Perilous Frontier pp. 23–24.
62
Elizabeth Bacon, 'Types of Pastoral Nomadism in Central and South-West Asia,' Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 10 (1954) pp. 44–68.
63
Lawrence Krader, 'The Ecology of Central Asian Pastoralism,' Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 11 (1955) pp. 301–326.
64
To say nothing of permafrost. Owen Lattimore established that near Yakutsk the permafrost penetrated the soil to a depth of 446 feet (Lattimore, Studies in Frontier History p. 459).
65
Barfield, Perilous Frontier p. 20.
66
D. L. Coppock, D. M. Swift and J. E. Elio, 'Livestock Feeding Ecology and Resource Utilisation in a Nomadic Pastoral Ecosystem,' Journal of Applied Ecology 23 (1986) ðð. 573–583.
67
Lattimore, Mongol Journeys p. 165.
68
Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 711.
69
V A. Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles p. 20; Hyland, Medieval Warhorse p. 126.
70
Buell, Historical Dictionary p. 242.
71
Barfield, Perilous Frontier p. 21.
72
Dawson, The Mongol Mission pp. 98–100.
73
Richard, Simon de St Quentin pp. 40–41.
74
Buell, Historical Dictionary p. 156.
75
Lattimore, Inner Asian Frontiers p. 168; Mongol Journeys p. 198.
76
C. Buchholtz, 'True Cattle (Genus Bos),' in Parker, Grzimek's Encyclopedia, v pp. 386–397; Mason, Evolution pp. 39–45; D. M. Leslie & G. M. Schaller, 'Bos Grunniens and Bos Mutus,' Mammalian Species 36 (2009) pp. 1–17.
77
Seth, From Heaven Lake p. 107.
78
Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck p. 158; Yule & Cordier, The Book of Ser Marco Polo I pp. 277–279.
79
Burnaby, Ride; the tradition continues to this day. The noted traveller Tim Severin described a 400-strong herd as 'a constantly bawling, groaning, squealing, defecating troop' (Severin, In Search of Genghis Khan p. 22).
80
Bulliet, Camel p. 30.
81
Peter Grubb, 'Order Artiodactyla,' in Wilson & Reeder, Mammal Species (2005) I pp. 637–722; Irwin, Camel pp. tor, 143,161; Bulliet, Camel pp. 143, 227.
82
Irwin, Camel pp. 142–143; E. H. Schafer, 'The Camel in China down to the Mongol Dynasty,' Sinologica 2 (1950) pp. 165–194, 263–290.
83
Wilson & Reeder, Animal Species p. 645; Lattimore, Mongol Journeys pp. 147–163; Gavin Hanby, Central Asia p. 7; De Windt, From Pekin to Calais pp. 128–129; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 150–151.
84
Irwin, Camel pp. 53, 176–177; De Windt, From Pekin pp. 109, 128; Hue, High Road in Tartary pp. 132–133.
85
Boyd & Houpt, Przewalski's Horse. Whereas most wild horses are feral (previously domesticated), the Przewalski's horse is truly wild (Tatjana Kavar & Peter Dove, 'Domestication of the Horse; Genetic Relationships between Domestic and Wild Horses,' Livestock Science 116 (2008) pp. 1–14; James Downs, 'The Origin and Spread of Riding in the Near East and Central Asia,' American Anthropologist 63 (1961) pp. 1193–1230).
86
Lattimore, Inner Asian Frontiers p. 168; White, Medieval Technology pp. 15–17.
87
Ëàäîíü — 4 äþéìà, èëè 10,16 ñì. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
88
Hendrick, Horse Breeds p. 287; Neville, Traveller's History p. 14; Severin, In Search of Genghis Khan p. 50.
89
S. Jagchid & C. R. Bawden, 'Some Notes on the Horse Policy of the Yuan Dynasty,' Central Asiatic Journal 10 (1965) pp. 246–265 (at pp. 248–250).
90
Carruthers, Unknown Mongolia II p. 133.
91
Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom p. 120.
92
Lattimore, Mongol Journeys p. 193: Jagchid & Bawden, 'Horse Policy,' pp. 248–250.
93
H. Desmond Martin, 'The Mongol Army,' Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society I (1943) pp. 46–85.
94
Hyland, Medieval Warhorse p. 129.
95
Hyland, Medieval Warhorse p. 131.
96
De Windt, From Pekin p. 112.
97
Hyland, Medieval Warhorse pp. 133–134.
98
Waugh, Marco Polo p. 57.
99
Hyland, Medieval Warhorse p. 130. In any case, 'Keeping all males entire would have led to absolute chaos in the droves of horses that travelled as back-up mounts in a Mongol army' (ibid. p. 129).
100
Hyland, Medieval Warhorse p. 130.
101
Ëàìèíèò — ðåâìàòè÷åñêîå âîñïàëåíèå êîïûò. — Ïðèì. ðåä.
102
Jagchid & Bawden, 'Horse Policy,' p. 249–250.
103
Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations iv part 2 p. 282. There are 153 species of mammals, 105 species of fish and 79 of reptiles. The number of bird species is disputed, depending on technical arguments over taxonomy, but is usually assessed as between 459 and 469.
104
Lattimore, Mongol Journeys p. 165.
105
For the many Mongol encounters with lions see Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 31, 148–149; II pp. 134, 265–266, 270, 293, 295. The Mongols sometimes hunted lions (Lane, Daily Life p. 17). Bretschneider (i p. 116) mentions a Mongol lion hunt in which ten lions were killed.
106
Äðåâíåå íàçâàíèå Àìóäàðüè. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
107
JB II p. 613.
108
Wilson & Reeder, Mammal Species p. 548; Helmut Henner, 'Uncia uncia,' Mammalian Species 20 (1972) pp. 1–5; Sunquist, Wild Cats ðð. 377–394; Buell, Historical Dictionary p. 119.
109
Jackson & Morgan, Ruhruck p. 142; Pelliot, Recherches sur les Chretiens pp. 91–92; Rockhill, Land of the Lamas pp. 157–158. The quote is from De Windt, From Pekin p. 114.
110
Wilson & Reeder, Mammal Species pp. 754–818; Lattimore, Mongol Journeys pp. 256–258; Severin, Search pp. 219–220.
111
Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations iv part 2 p. 286; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 98, 130; Lattimore, Mongol Journeys p. 170.
112
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches, I pp. 31, 128,143–145; II ð. 250.
113
De Windt, From Pekin p. 146, 220; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches II p. 192; Hue, High Road pp. 43–44; Lattimore, Mongoljoumeys p. 166.
114
Skelton, Marston & Painter, Vinland Map p. 86.
115
Òàêæå Âèëëåì, Ãèéîì, Ãèëüîì. — Ïðèì. ðåä.
116
Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck p. 89.
117
Dawson, Mongol Mission pp. 6–7.
118
Blake & Frye, Grigor of Akanc p. 295.
119
Lane, Daily Life.
120
Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 18; Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck p. 89.
121
Schuyler Cammann, 'Mongol Costume, Historical and Recent,' in Sinor, Aspects pp. 157–166.
122
Äðóãèå âàðèàíòû — «áîãòà», «áóãòàê», «áóãòà», «áîêêà», «áîêà». — Ïðèì. ïåð.
123
Dawson, Mongol Mission pp. 7–8; Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck p. 89; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 52–53; Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither (1866 ed.) II p. 222; Arthur Waley, Travels of an Alchemist p. 67.
124
Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck pp. 72–73; Waley, Travels op. cit. p. 66; Schuyler Cammann, 'Mongol dwellings, with special reference to Inner Mongolia,' in Sinor, Aspects pp. 17–22; Jagchid & Hyer, Mongolia's Culture pp. 62–67; cf also Torvald Faegne, Tents.
125
Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 17.
126
Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck pp. 79, 84; JB I p. 21; J. A. Boyle, 'Kirakos of Ganjak on the Mongols,' Central Asiatic Journal 8 (1963); Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora iv. pp. 76–77, 388; vi p. 77; d'Ohsson, Histoire.
127
Gregory G. Guzman, 'Reports of Mongol Cannibalism in the 13th Century in Latin Sources: Oriental Fact or Western Fiction?' in Westrem, Discovering New Worlds pp. 31–68; L. Hambis, 'L'histoire des Mongols avant Genghis-khan d'apres les sources chinoises et mongoles, et la documentation conservee par Rasid-al-Din,' Central Asiatic Journal 14 (1970) pp. 125–133 (atp. 129).
128
Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck pp. 76, 80–83,175; Dawson, Mongol Mission pp. 16–17; Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I p. 240; Yule & Cordier, Ser Marco Polo I pp. 259–260; Hildinger, Story of the Mongols (1966) p. 17.
129
Boyle, 'Kirakos of Ganjak,' p. 21; Hildinger, Story p. 17; d'Ohsson, Histoire II pp. 59, 86,107, 204.
130
Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck p. 108.
131
Joseph F. Fletcher, 'The Mongols: Ecological and Social Perspectives,' p. 14.
132
Walter Goldschmidt, 'A General Model for Pastoral Social Systems,' in Equipe Ecologie, Pastoral Production and Society pp. 15–27.
133
Ãðàäóàëèçì — îáëàñòü ýêîíîìèêè, èçó÷àþùàÿ ïóòè è çàêîíîìåðíîñòè ïîñòåïåííîãî ïåðåõîäà ýêîíîìè÷åñêîé ñèñòåìû èç îäíîãî ñîñòîÿíèÿ â äðóãèå. — Ïðèì. ðåä.
134
Joseph F. Fletcher, 'The Mongols: Ecological and Social Perspectives,' pp. 39–42.
135
Christian, History of Russia I pp. 81–85.
136
For Carpini's allegations see Dawson, Mongol Mission pp. 17–18.
137
For Carpini's allegations see Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 103; Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck p. 91.
138
Vladimirtsov, Le regime social p. 35.
139
Cribb, Nomads (1991) p. 18.
140
RT I pp. 113–120; SHC pp. 1–10.
141
Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom p. 89.
142
Îòíîñÿùåãîñÿ ê ìèôîëîãè÷åñêîé ðåêå Ñòèêñ. — Ïðèì. ðåä.
143
SHC p. 11; Louis Hambis, 'L'Histoire des Mongols avant Genghis-khan' Central Asiatic Journal 14 (1970) pp. 125–133; Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 330; Vladimirtsov, Life of Genghis p. n.
144
Lattimore, 'The Geographical Factor,' The Geographical Journal 91 (1938) pp. 14–15; Lattimore, Studies in Frontier History (1962) pp. 241–258. For the Uighurs see Mackerras, Uighur Empire.
145
RT I pp. 120–123; SHC p. 11; Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 296, 316; Buell, Dictionary pp. 105, 218, 229.
146
Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom pp. 94–95. For a lucid overall survey see Fletcher, Studies pp. 12–13.
147
For the Naiman see RT I pp. 67–70; Hambis, Gengis Khan pp. 7–22; Wittfogel & Feng, Liao p. 50; S. Murayama, 'Sind die Naiman Turken oder Mongolen?' Central Asiatic Journal 4 (1959) pp. 188–198; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 215–221, 299–311; Roemer et al, History of the Turkic Peoples; W Barthold, '12 Vorlesungen iiber die Geschichte der Turken Mittelasiens,' in Die Welt des Islams 17 (1935) p. 151.
148
The Kereit have attracted a lot of attention. RT I pp. 61–67; Togan, Flexibility and Limitation, esp. pp. 60–67; D. M. Dunlop, 'The Kerait of Eastern Asia,' Bulletin of the School of Oriental and Ajrican Studies 11 (1944) pp. 276–289; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 207–209; Erica D. Hunter, 'The conversion of the Keraits to Chrstianity in ad 1007,' Zentralasiatische Studien 22 (1991) pp. 142–163.
149
RT I pp. 43–55; Wittfogel & Feng, Liao pp. 101–102, 528, 573–598; Togan, Flexibility pp. 66–68; Louis Hambis, 'Survivances de toponymes de l'epoque mongole en Haute Asie,' in Melanges de sinologie ojferts a Monsieur Paul Demieville, Bibliotheque de I'lnstitut des Hautes Etudes Chinoises, 20 (1974) pp. 19–41 (at pp. 26–29); S. G. Kljastornys, 'Das Reich der Tartaren in der Zeit von Cinggis Khan,' Central Asiatic Journal 36 (1992) pp. 72–83; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 2–9.
150
Òàêæå Êîñîãîë, Õóâñãåë, Õåâñãåë-íóóð. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
151
RT I pp. 52–54; JB I p. 63; Pelliot & Hambis Campagnes pp. 227–228, 271–278.
152
RT I pp. 125–129; SHC p. n; Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan pp. 9–10. But some sceptics say the insults allegedly offered by Qabul on these occasions should not be taken literally but read allegorically as indicating the generally poor state of Mongol-Jin relations (see Grousset, Empire of the Steppes p. 197).
153
Barfield, Perilous Frontier p. 183.
154
Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations iv part 1 p. 246. But see the contrary case argued in N. Iszamc, 'L'etat feodal mongol et les conditions de sa formation,' Etudes Mongoles 5 (1974) pp. 127–130.
155
Louis Hambis, 'Un episode mal connu de l'histoire de Gengis khan,' Journal des Savants (January-March 1975) pp. 3–46.
156
Tamura Jitsuzo, 'The Legend of the Origin of the Mongols and Problems Concerning their Migration,' Acta Asiatica 24 (1973) pp. 9–13; Barthold, Turkestan (1928) p. 381; Paul Pelliot, 'Notes sur le "Turkestan" de W Barthold,' T'oung Pao 27 (1930) pp. 12–56 (at p. 24).
157
RT I p. 130; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 132–133; Grousset, Empire p. 198. Ambaghai was taking his daughter to marry into the Ayiru'ut Buiru'ut sept, one of the subtribes of the Tartars. It is interesting that the practice of exogamy was so deeply ingrained with the Mongols that the Tayichiud would consider a match with the Tartars, their greatest enemies (Vladimirtsov, Le regime social pp. 58–59). Another version of the ambush is that it was not the intended bridegroom and family who betrayed him, but Tartar mercenaries (juyin) employed as gendarmes by the Jin who set the ambuscade (Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 300–301).
158
Grousset, Empire pp. 194, 200.
159
Erdmann, Temudschin (1862) pp. 194–230.
160
Äðóãîå íàçâàíèå — «Ñîêðîâåííîå ñêàçàíèå». Ñì. ïðèìå÷àíèå ê çàìåòêå «Îò àâòîðà».  ïåðåâîäå ñîõðàíÿåòñÿ íàçâàíèå àâòîðà «Òàéíàÿ èñòîðèÿ», ïîñêîëüêó â àíãëèéñêîì è ðóññêîì âàðèàíòàõ èìåþòñÿ ðàñõîæäåíèÿ.
161
Vladimirtsov, Le regime social pp. 89–92.
162
Âîàíåðãåñ — «ñûíîâüÿ ãðîìà» — ïðîçâèùå, äàííîå Èèñóñîì ñûíîâüÿì Çåâåäåÿ — Èîàííó è Èàêîâó çà èõ ñèëó, ñòðàñòíîñòü, ãîðÿ÷íîñòü. — Ïðèì. ðåä.
163
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 33.
164
RT I pp. 130–131.
165
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 12; Barfield, Perilous Frontier p. 184.
166
RT I p. 132; SHC pp. 11–13.
167
Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 320.
168
Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom p. 140.
169
Vladimirtsov; Life of Genghis p. 12; Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan pp. 15–16; Olbricht 8 Pinks, Meng-tapei-lup. 3.
170
SHO pp. 127–128; SHR pp. 74–75; Togan, Flexibility pp. 68–69.
171
SHO pp. 127–128; SHR pp. 74–75; Togan, Flexibility pp. 69–70.
172
The Tanguts had an unfortunate habit of supporting all the losers on the steppes (Khazanov, Nomads pp. 234–236).
173
Togan, Flexibility pp. 70–72.
174
K. Uray-Kohalmi, 'Siberische Parallelen zur Ethnographie der geheimen Geschichte der Mongolen,' in Ligeti, Mongolian Studies pp. 247–264 (at pp. 262–263).
175
L. V Clark, 'The Theme of Revenge in the Secret History of the Mongols,' in Clark & Draghi, Aspects of Altaic Civilization ðð. 33–57; Clark, 'From the Legendary Cycle of Cinggis-gayan: The Story of an Encounter with 300 Yayichiud from the Allan Tobci,' Mongolian Studies 5 (1979) ðð. 5–39 (at pp. 37–38).
176
RT I p. 134; SHC pp. 11–13.
177
Rachewiltz says that the name of this earlier wife 'cannot be determined despite many scholarly efforts' (Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 313). Ratchnevsky, however, (Genghis Khan pp. 15–16, 224) is adamant that her name was Suchigu or Suchikel, sometimes referred to as Ko'agchin.
178
Óíãèðàòû — òàêæå õîíãèðàòû, õóíãèðàòû, êóíãðàòû, êîíãèðàòû, îíãèðàòû. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
179
For the Ongirrad subclan as Hoelun's home see Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 402–409; Vladimirtsov Le regime social pp. 58–59. The Buriyat have generated a considerable literature. See Lattimore, Mongols of Manchuria p. 61; Atwood, Encyclopedia p. 61; Eric Haenisch, Die Geheime Geschichte p. 112; Elena Skubuik, 'Buryat,' in Hahnunen, Mongolian Languages pp. 102–128; Lincoln, Conquest pp. 51–52; West, Encyclopedia (2009) pp. 132–133. Travellers' tales on the Buriyat include Sharon Hudgins, 'Feasting with the Buriats of Southern Siberia,' in Walker, Food on the Move pp. 136–156; Curtin, A Journey; Matthiessen, Baikal.
180
Rashid's date of 1155 was followed by the early twentieth-century Russian historians Vladimirtsov and Barthold. Pelliot, always a contrarian, proposes the impossibly late date of 1167 (Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I pp. 281–288). But the best authorities such as Rachewiltz and Ratchnevsky plump for 1162. See the detailed argumentation in Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan pp. 17–19; Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 320–321.
181
Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 269, 272, 322–324.
182
SHC p. 14; Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I pp. 288–289; Dunnell, Chinggis Khan p. 21 remarks that this was apt for a child of destiny.
183
Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 322.
184
RT I p. 135; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 171–175.
185
RT I p. 106; Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom p. 142. For the game of knucklebones they played see Jean-Paul Roux, 'A propos des osselets de Gengis Khan,' in Heissig et al, Tractata Altaica pp. 557–568. Cf also F. N. David, Games, Gods and Gambling p. 2.
186
Vladimirtsov Le regime social op. cit. p. 76; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes p. 232; Wittfogel & Feng, Liao p. 239.
187
Ratchnevsky, 'La condition de la femme mongole au 12/13å siecle,' in Heissig et al, Tractata Altaica pp. 509–530.
188
Togan, 'The Qongrat in History/ in-Pfeiffer & Quinn, History and Historiography pp. 61–83; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 393, 402–405; Wittfogel & Feng, Liao pp. 92, 634.
189
SHC p. 15; SHW p. 243; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 423–429.
190
Togan, 'The Qongrat in History/ p. 74.
191
Henry Serruys, 'Two Remarkable Women in Mongolia,' Asia Major 19 (1957) pp. 191–245.
192
Mostaert, Sur quelques passages pp. 10–12.
193
SHC p. 17.
194
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles p. 239.
195
Zhao, Marriage as Political Strategy p. 4.
196
SHR p. 14; Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 14. Dai Sechen's dream was full of symbolism, especially as regards shading, since white was regarded as a lucky colour by the Mongols (Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 328).
197
Togan, Flexibility pp. 121–125.
198
L. V Clark, 'The Theme of Revenge,' pp. 33–57.
199
SHC p. 18.
200
Silvestre de Sacy, Chrestomathie arabe II p. 162.
201
 «Ñîêðîâåííîì ñêàçàíèè» ýòè ñëîâà ïðîèçíîñèò îäèí èç ïðåäâîäèòåëåé òàéäæèóòîâ, îòêî÷åâàâøèõ è áðîñèâøèõ Îýëóí ñ äåòüìè (§ 72). — Ïðèì. ïåð.
202
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 22.
203
Îòñóòñòâóþùèå âñåãäà íåïðàâû (ôð.).
204
Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 344.
205
RT I p. 133.
206
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 22.
207
May, Mongol Conquests p. 266.
208
SHC p. 22; Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan pp. 20, 24.
209
Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 346–347.
210
RT I p. 138.
211
Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 185–187.
212
Roux, La mort pp. 92–96.
213
SHC pp. 23–24.
214
SHC p. 25; SHR pp. 23–24.
215
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan pp. 25–26.
216
RT I pp. 93–94; SHC pp. 25–26.
217
SHC pp. 27–28; SHO pp. 70–71.
218
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 26.
219
SHC p. 29; SHO p. 73.
220
SHO pp. 73–74; SHR pp. 26–27.
221
SHO p. 75; SHW p. 252.
222
SHC pp. 30–31.
223
SHO pp. 75–76. For the subsequent career of Bo'orchu, who seems to have died in 1227, roughly the same time as Genghis himself, see Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 342–360.
224
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles p. 90.
225
Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 411–414; Vladimirtsov, Le regime social pp. 58–59.
226
RT I pp. 80–89.
227
Krader, Social Organization pp. 39, 89 is the source for this. In the kind of language beloved of academic anthropologists he tells us that Temujin's marriage was an example of matrilateral cross-cousin marriage (ibid, p. 344).
228
Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 391–392.
229
RT I p. 93.
230
SHO pp. 79–81; SHR pp. 31–32; SHW p. 256.
231
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 34.
232
JB I pp. 187–188; Boyle, Successors p. 31.
233
SHC pp. 34–38.
234
Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom p. 143. On the other hand, it has been argued strongly that the Merkit raid is not historical but a folkloric trope, a perennial motif in epic poetry about the theft of women, whether of Europa by Zeus, Helen by Paris or the Princess Sita's seizure in the Hindu epic Ramayana. The raid is one of the prime exhibits in H. Okada, 'The Secret History of the Mongols, a Pseudo-historical Novel, Journal of Asian and African Studies 5 (1972) pp. 61–67 (at ð. 63). But the theory is unconvincing if only because it makes Chagatai's later violent hostility to Jochi on the grounds of his illegitimacy impossible to fathom.
235
Togan, Flexibility p. 73; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 250, 401.
236
Mostaert, Sur quelques passages p. 32.
237
Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 279–281; Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 421.
238
SHC pp. 38–39.
239
SHO pp. 91–92; SHR p. 41; Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 428.
240
SHC pp. 43–47. As Ratchnevsky tersely comments: 'Rashid's version is implausible' (Genghis Khan p. 35).
241
SHC pp. 39–42.
242
RT I p. 107.
243
Íåîæèäàííàÿ ðàçâÿçêà, ñåíñàöèÿ, òðþê (ôð.).
244
RT I pp. 107–108.
245
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 36.
246
SHO pp. 85–87; SHR ðð. 35–36.
247
SHO pp. 87–90; SHR pp. 37–39; Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 417.
248
Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 435.
249
SHC pp. 52–53; SHO pp. 95–96; SHR pp. 44–45; SHW p. 262.
250
V V Bartold, 'Chingis-Khan,' in Encyclopaedia of Islam (1st ed., repr. 1968 v pp. 615–628 (at p. 617)); Vladimirtsov, Le regime social pp. 107–108; Vladimirtsov, Genghis Khan p. 130.
251
Grousset, Conqueror of the World p. 67.
252
SHO pp. 96–97; SHR pp. 44–46.
253
Vladimirtsov, Le regime social pp. 105–107.
254
As Rachewiltz sagely remarks, 'If neither Temujin nor his wife could understand Jamuga's poetic riddle, what hope have we, who are so far removed from that culture, to understand what was the real meaning of those words?' (Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 442).
255
Owen Lattimore, 'Chingis Khan and the Mongol Conquests,' Scientific American 209 (1963) pp. 55–68 (at p. 62); Lattimore, 'Honor and Loyalty: the case of Temujin and Jamukha,' in Clark & Draghi, Aspects pp. 127–138 (at p. 133).
256
Grousset, Empire pp. 201–202; Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom pp. 143–145.
257
The numbers mentioned in the Secret History are unreliable for a number of reasons: 1) the author embellished with poetic licence and routinely inflated the size of armies; 2) the author anachronistically projected back into the twelfth century names, titles, technologies and modalities that belonged to an era fifty years in the future; 3) numbers in Mongol histories have a mystical or symbolic significance and therefore cannot be taken seriously for historical research. See Larry Moses, 'Legends by Numbers: the symbolism of numbers in the Secret History of the Mongols,' Asian Folklore Studies 55 (1996) pp. 73–97 and Moses, 'Triplicated Triplets: the Number Nine in the Secret History of the Mongols,' Asian Folklore Studies 45 (1986) pp. 287–294.
258
For exhaustive detail on the Thirteen see Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 35–37, 53–135. See also Louis Ligeti, 'Une ancienne interpolation dans I'Altan Tobci,' Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 26 (1972) pp. 1–10.
259
SHO p. 104; SHR p. 152; Buell, Dictionary p. 159.
260
SHO pp. 127–128, 150–154, 177; SHR pp. 74–75, 96–100, 123–124.
261
Äóõ êîìàíäû, ñîëèäàðíîñòè (ôð.).
262
Infra dignitatem (ëàò.) — äóðíàÿ ñëàâà; ïëîõàÿ ðåïóòàöèÿ.
263
SHO p. 90; SHW p. 263.
264
Grousset, Empire; Vladimirtsov, Le regime social p. 101.
265
Òóìåí — íàèáîëåå êðóïíàÿ îðãàíèçàöèîííàÿ òàêòè÷åñêàÿ åäèíèöà ìîíãîëüñêîãî âîéñêà XIII–XV âåê. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
266
SHO pp. 99–100; SHR p. 48. When he conquered the Turned later, Temujin actually made good on this promise (SHO pp. 195–196; SHR p. 138).
267
SHO p. 78; SHR p. 30; Atwood, Encyclopedia p. 9; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 155, 164, 340–341.
268
Martin, Rise of Chingis Khan p. 66.
269
Grousset described the Uriangqai's skates as follows: 'Small, well-polished bones tied to their feet with which they speed so swiftly over the ice that they catch animals in the night' (Empire pp. 579, 582).
270
For Subedei's early life see Abel-Remusat, Nouveaux melanges II p. 97; Hildinger, Story of the Mongols p. 65; Gabriel, Subotai pp. 1–5.
271
SHO p. 76; SHR p. 28.
272
Vladimirtsov, Genghis Khan p. 33.
273
SHC p. 58.
274
Barfield, Perilous Frontier pp. 187–188.
275
SHO p. 106; SHR p. 53; SHW p. 266.
276
ibid.; Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 475–476.
277
Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 135–137.
278
Denis Sinor, 'The Legendary Origin of the Turks,' in Zygas & Voorheis, eds, Folklorica pp. 223–257 (at pp. 243–246).
279
Buell, Dictionary pp. 9–11.
280
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan pp. 49–50, 235.
281
It was not just Temujin who had to endure hostility from brothers and uncles.
282
Wittfogel & Feng, Liao p. 648.
283
Gabriel, Subotai p. 9.
284
SHO p. 103; SHR pp. 50–51.
285
Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 196–207.
286
For the planning of the campaign see Pelliot, 'L'edition collective des oeuvres de Wang Konowei,' T'oung Pao 26 (1929) pp. 113–182 (at pp. 126–128). For the military aspects see Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 192–200.
287
Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 202–203.
288
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 235 claims this location was at 43° N109° E.
289
SHO pp. 108–110; SHR pp. 57–58; Hambis, Genghis Khan pp. 47, 57; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 195–199.
290
Äðóãîå íàïèñàíèå — Âàíãèí-×èíñÿí. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
291
Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I pp. 291–295.
292
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan pp. 52–53.
293
Abel-Remusat, Melanges p. 90.
294
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 56.
295
SHO pp. 113–114; SHR p. 61.
296
RT I pp. 163–164; SHO pp. 107–108, SHR p. 55.
297
SHW pp. 267–268.
298
Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 511–512.
299
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 43.
300
Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom p. 138.
301
SHO pp. 110–111; SHR pp. 58–59; Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 54.
302
SHW p. 270; SHC pp. 64–65; Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I p. 322; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes p. 223.
303
SHO p. 114; SHR pp. 61–62.
304
Grousset, Empire p. 204.
305
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan pp. 54–55.
306
Krause, Cingis Han p. 15; d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 53–54, 74.
307
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 57.
308
Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes p. 309.
309
Hambis, Genghis Khan pp. 61–62.
310
RT I pp. 177–178; SHO pp. 132–133; SHR pp. 80–81.
311
RT I p. 64; Barthold, Turkestan p. 362; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes ðð. 333–334.
312
SHO p. 134; SHR p. 82.
313
RT I pp. 178–179; Krause, Cingis Han ð. 17.
314
RT I ðð. 179–180; SHC pp. 76–78; Mostaert, Sur quelques passages p. 69; d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 60.
315
RT I pp. 165, 175, 180–181; SHO pp. 126–128; SHR ðð. 73–75; SHC pp. 80–81.
316
RT I p. 182; SHC p. 68; Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I pp. 225–226; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 248–249.
317
Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom p. 150.
318
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan pp. 38–39.
319
RT I p. 182; SHO p. 115; SHR pp. 62–63. As Lattimore says about Sorqan Shira's similar circumspection: 'It required nerve and good timing to elude the obligations of collective responsibility imposd by the institution of the subordinate tribe' (Lattimore, 'Chingis Khan and the Mongol Conquests,' Scientific American 209 (1963) pp. 55–68 (at p. 60)).
320
SHC pp. 73–74; SHO pp. 120–121; SHR pp. 67–68. One version of this explanation has it that the Ongirrad had originally decided to submit to Temujin but that, on their way to him, they were mistaken for the enemy and attacked by Kereit under Jochi Qasar. Enraged by their treatment, they joined Jamuga instead. (Martin, Rise of Chingis Khan pp. 72–73).
321
Rachewiltz, Commentary locates the site of the battle at 48° N11° E, between the Onon and Kerulen.
322
Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I pp. 424–425; Pelliot in T'oung Pao 13 (1912) pp. 436–438.
323
For descriptions of the battle see RT I pp. 85, 183; II p. 43; SHO p. 117; SHR p. 64; Grousset, Empire p. 201; Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom pp. 155–156; Whiting, Military History p. 367.
324
For Jamuga's use of these arrows see SHO pp. 87–88; SHR pp. 37–38.
325
Òàê ó àâòîðà. Òàéäæèóòû — òîæå ìîíãîëû. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
326
SHO pp. 118–119; SHR pp. 65–67; d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 63.
327
SHC pp. 69–70.
328
SHC p. 81.
329
Äåòñêàÿ èãðà, â êîòîðîé ïîñòîÿííî âîçîáíîâëÿåòñÿ ñîñòÿçàíèå çà òî, ÷òîáû óñïåòü çàíÿòü ñòóëüÿ, êîãäà ïî êîìàíäå âíåçàïíî îáðûâàåòñÿ ìóçûêà. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
330
Grousset, Empire p. 207; see also Melville, Amir Chupan.
331
See the first-rate analysis in Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 528–531.
332
SHO pp. 118–119; SHR pp. 65–67.
333
SHC pp. 74–75; SHW p. 275; SHO pp. 121–122; SHR p. 69. It is only fair to point out that some scholars are sceptical about the historicity of the Jebe incident, viewing it as a standard motif or topos in epic poetry. For a nuanced discussion of the pros and cons of this argument see Rachewiltz, Commentary ðð. 533–534, 536–538.
334
Âûøå òåëåæíîé îñè. «Ñêàçàíèå», § 154. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
335
Some scholars dispute that the policy was genocide and claim that Temujin intended to execute only all such males in the tribal confederacy. To act otherwise would be a waste of potential slave labour and 'arrow fodder'. (Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 571).
336
SHW p. 278; SHO p. 129; SHR p. 176; Grousset, Empire p. 208. For a complete list of the Tartar clans and septs at Dalan Nemurges see Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 240–245.
337
SHW p. 279.
338
Hambis, Genghis Khan pp. 72–73; Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 572–573.
339
RT I pp. 182–183; Krause, Cingis Han p. 19.
340
SHW pp. 279–280; SHO pp. 130–131; SHE p. 79.
341
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 99; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes p. 172.
342
Grousset, Empire p. 208.
343
SHO p. 135; SHR p. 84; Vladimirtsov, Le regime social p. 76. Ilkha's title was 'Senggum'. Some historians have mistaken the title for the man and refer to the Kereit prince as 'Senggum' as if this were a proper name.
344
Rachewiltz (Commentary p. 594) points out that in his contemptuous references to Ilkha, Toghril implies that the Senggum is his only son. Now it is known that Toghril had at least two sons, so either he was being distinctly unpaternal to the other one(s) or they had already died.
345
RT I p. 183.
346
SHO pp. 136–137. Others say the quid pro quo was to be marriage between Temujin's daughter Qojin and Ilkha's son Tusaqa (Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan pp. 84–86).
347
RT I p. 184.
348
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 68.
349
SHC pp. 88–90.
350
Ñâåðøèâøåãîñÿ ôàêòà (ôð.).
351
SHW p. 281: SHO pp. 136–139; SHR pp. 58–61.
352
«Ñîêðîâåííîå ñêàçàíèå», § 160. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
353
This is the translation provided by Waley (SHW p. 281). Onon endorses this translation except for changing the two key descriptions to 'the lark that stays with you' as opposed to 'a distant lark'. Onon claims this is the difference between the species melanocorypha mongolica and alauda (usually known as eremophila) alpestris (SHO p. 133). Grousset has a much looser translation: 'I am the lark living ever in the same place in the good season and the bad — Temujin is the wild goose [sic] which flies away in winter.' (Grousset, Empire p. 209) Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom, has 'I am a permanently present gull [sic] but my anda is a migratory bird, a lark.'.
354
Òàêæå Òðàíñîêñàíèÿ, Ìàâåðàííàõð, èñòîðè÷åñêàÿ îáëàñòü â Öåíòðàëüíîé Àçèè, ìåæäóðå÷üå Àìóäàðüè è Ñûðäàðüè ñ ãîðîäàìè Ñàìàðêàíä, Áóõàðà è äð. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
355
SHO p. 156; SHR pp. 102–103; Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom p. 252.
356
SHO p. 158; SHR p. 104.
357
SHC p. 93; Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan pp. 84–86.
358
SHW p. 285.
359
For full details see RT I p. 185. For Temujin's reward of the two herdsmen at the quriltai of 1206 see SHO pp. 191, 209; SHR pp. 133–134, 149–150; Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 607–609.
360
RT I p. 191.
361
Vladimirtsov, Genghis Khan p. 51.
362
SHO pp. 143–145; SHR pp. 91–92.
363
RT I p. 186.
364
SHC pp. 148–149.
365
SHO pp. 145–146, 197–199; SHR pp. 91–92, 139–141; SHC pp. 96–98.
366
Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 623–624. For other accounts of Qalqaljid Sands see JB I p. 37; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 45–47; Grousset, Empire pp. 157–160.
367
Ýòè ñëîâà ïðèíàäëåæàò ïðåäâîäèòåëþ òóáåãåíîâ À÷èõ-Øèðóíó: «Ïîêàæèñü òîëüêî îíè íàì íà ãëàçà, òàê ìû çàãðåáåì èõ â ïîëû õàëàòîâ, ñëîâíî ñêîòñêèé ïîìåò». «Ñîêðîâåííîå ñêàçàíèå» (§ 174). — Ïðèì. ïåð.
368
SHO pp. 148–149; SHR p. 95.
369
Ïîñëåäíèé, ñìåðòåëüíûé óäàð (ôð.).
370
SHO p. 147; SHR pp. 92–93.
371
SHC pp. 98–99; SHO p. 147; SHR p. 94.
372
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan pp. 70–71.
373
JB I p. 38; SHO pp. 149–150, SHR p. 95; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 406–407.
374
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 77.
375
«Ñîêðîâåííîå ñêàçàíèå», § 177. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
376
RT I pp. 187–190; Mostaert, Sur quelques passages pp. 96–97; SHO pp. 150–157; SHR pp. 96–104; SHC pp. 102–109. Temujin listed the following as his principal grievances: 1) he had brought backjaqa Gambu from China to help Toghril; 2) he had executed Sacha Beki and Taichen at the Ong Khan's request; 3) he gave to Toghril booty from his raid on the Merkit in 1196 but when the Ong Khan raided them in 1198, he gave Temujin nothing; 4) he had sent his four best generals — the 'four hounds' — to rescue Toghril when sorely beset by the Naiman.
377
Âîéíà íå íà æèçíü, à íà ñìåðòü, äî ïîáåäíîãî êîíöà (ôð.).
378
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 78.
379
Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 71–72.
380
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 45; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 42–46. The exact location of the famous Lake Baljuna is unknown. It may be a tributary of the Ingoda River or it may be another name for Lake Balzino, source of the River Tura, south of modem Chita.
381
Grousset, Conqueror of the World pp. 134–135.
382
Pelliot, always a contrarian, maintained that the Baljuna covenant was legendary (Pelliot, 'Une ville musulmane dans la Chine du Nord sous les Mongols,' Journal Asiatique 211 (1927) pp. 261–279). But Cleaves, in a superb display of scholarship, has proved beyond doubt that the oath was a genuine historical event (Cleaves, 'The Historicity of the Baljuna Covenant,' Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 18 (1955) ðð. 357–421). See also Krause, Cingis Han p. 23; Grenard, Genghis Khan (1935) ð. 246.
383
Krause, Cingis Han p. 94.
384
Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 664.
385
SHO pp. 158–159; SHR pp. 104–105.
386
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 81; SHO pp. 159–160; SHR pp. 105–106.
387
Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 664.
388
Krause, Cingis Han p. 24; Herrmann, Atlas of China p. 49.
389
For Muqali see SHC p. 147; Rachewiltz, 'Muqali, Bol, Tas and Ant'ung,' Papers on Ear Eastern History 15 (1977) pp. 45–62.
390
RT I pp. 65, 191; SHR pp. 109–110; SHO p. 164; SHC pp. 113–115; d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 82.
391
Pelliot, 'A propos des Comans', Journal Asiatique 15 (1920) pp. 125–185 (at pp. 180–185).
392
Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 677.
393
SHO p. 165; SHR pp. 110–112.
394
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 180.
395
Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 416–417.
396
Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 36, 56, 123–124, 127, 245–247, 398.
397
RT I pp. 94–95.
398
RT I p. 192.
399
For the Naiman see RT I pp. 67–70; Roemer et al, History of the Turkic Peoples.
400
Pelliot, 'Chretiens d'Asie centrale et d'Extreme-Orient,' T'oung Pao (1914) pp. 630–631; Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 685.
401
RT I pp. 70, 201; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes p. 364.
402
Mostaert, Sur quelques passages p. 110; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 308–309; Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 679.
403
ibid. p. 689.
404
SHC pp. 119–120; Mostaert, Sur quelques passages p. 252.
405
Larry Moses, A theoretical approach to the process of Inner Asian confederation,' Etudes Mongoles 5 (1974) pp. 113–122 (at pp. 115–117).
406
SHR pp. 111–112.
407
SHR p. 202.
408
SHR p. 201.
409
For example, the decisive battle of Chakirmaut was fought at the foot of Mount Naqu. Some of the sources, aware that two battles were fought against the Naiman, identify Chakirmaut and Naqu Cliffs as two separate and distinct battles. Grousset amalgamates aspects of both battles in his account (Empire Mongol pp. 163–168).
410
SHC pp. 125–127; Vladimirtsov, Genghis Khan p. 60.
411
SHW p. 297; SHO pp. 169–170; SHR pp. 115–116.
412
Rachewiltz regards this as the first order issued under Temujin's new legal code, the Yasa (Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 697).
413
SHO pp. 171–172; SHR pp. 116–117.
414
Rachewiltz thinks some of these locations are implausible (Commentary pp. 695–696).
415
Rachewiltz locates Mt Naqu at 47° N 104° E (Commentary p. 703).
416
Krause, Cingis Han p. 26.
417
SHO pp. 172–176; SHR pp. 118–121.
418
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 87; Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 85.
419
RT I p. 204.
420
SHO p. 177; SHR p. 122.
421
RT I p. 202.
422
For Tayang's death see d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 87–88; Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 720.
423
Grousset, Conqueror of the World pp. 152–161.
424
SHO p. 177; SHR p. 122.
425
SHO p. 177; SHR p. 122.
426
SHO p. 185.
427
SHR pp. 128–130.
428
Mostaert, Sur quelques passages 126–127.
429
See the outstanding analysis in Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom pp. 244–260.
430
For two different assessments see Timothy May, 'Jamugka and the Education of Chinggis Khan,' Acta Mongolica 6 (2006) pp. 273–286 and Owen Lattimore, 'Honor and Loyalty: the case of Temukin and Jamukha,' in Clark & Draghi, Aspects of Altaic Civilization pp. 127–138.
431
'Cat out of the bag' occurs in Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom p. 257. Cf Rachewiltz: 'As we would expect, in all these sources Jamuga appears directly or indirectly as the villain but occasionally the cat is out of the bag [my italics], as it were, and we catch a glimpse of what may have been the true state of affairs' (Commentary p. 472). As for the quasi Gnostic writing about Jamuga, Gumilev has a good description: 'a political cypher which has been deliberately served up as a riddle' (Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom p. 144).
432
Conan Doyle, The Sign of Four, Chapter Six.
433
Tertius gaudens — «òðåòèé ðàäóþùèéñÿ» (ëàò.), òî åñòü òðåòüÿ ñòîðîíà, èñïûòûâàþùàÿ óäîâëåòâîðåíèå îò êîíôëèêòà äâóõ äðóãèõ ñòîðîí.
434
SHO pp. 187–189; SHR pp. 130–133.
435
This is a variant on the subject-predicate mistake famously analysed by Ludwig Feuerbach. 'God made Man' says the Christian catechism, whereas for Feuerbach and all atheists the reality is that man made God (see Feuerbach, Lectures on the Essence of Religion (1849)).
436
«Ñîêðîâåííîå ñêàçàíèå», § 201. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
437
SHO pp. 187–189; SHR pp. 130–132.
438
SHC pp. 137–141.
439
For Eljigidei see JB I pp. 184, 249, 271–274; SHO pp. 215–219, 271–274; SHR pp. 157–158, 209–213; Hambis, Genghis Khan pp. 29–30.
440
Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 757; Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 88; Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom p. 235.
441
For the contrast with Daritai see Ratchnevsky, 'Die Rechtsverhaltnisse bei den Mongolen im 12–13 jahrhundert,' Central Asiatic Journal 31 (1987) pp. 64–110 (at pp. 102–103). For the implications of Temujin's atrocity in terms of Mongol attitudes to oath taking see F. Isono, 'A Few Reflections on the Anda Relationship,' in Clark & Draghi, Aspects of Altaic Civilization pp. 81–87; Isono, 'More about the Anda Relationship,' Journal of the Anglo-Mongolian Society 8 (1983) pp. 36–47; Henry Serruys, 'A Note on Arrows and Oaths among the Mongols, 'Journal of the American Oriental Society 78 (1958) pp. 279–294.
442
Çíàìÿ èç òîíêîãî áåëîãî âîéëîêà ñ äåâÿòüþ õâîñòàìè ÿêà (ñèìâîëà ñèëû), îçíà÷àþùèìè äåâÿòü ãëàâíûõ ìîíãîëüñêèõ ïëåìåí. — Ïðèì. ðåä.
443
Ãóìèëåâ Ë. Í. Ïîèñêè âûìûøëåííîãî öàðñòâà (Ëåãåíäà î «ãîñóäàðñòâå ïðåñâèòåðà Èîàííà»). — Ì.: Àéðè-Ïðåññ, 2002. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
444
Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom p. 259.
445
RT I pp. 72–74; Krause, Cingis Han pp. 27, 65.
446
SHO p. 182; SHR pp. 125–126.
447
RT I pp. 204–205; Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 724–725, 730–732. Some say Toqto'a was not killed until 1208, but I follow Rachewiltz in thinking 1205 overwhelmingly likely (ibid. pp. 734–735).
448
Àâòîð íàçûâàåò ñûíà Òîõòîà-áåêè òåì æå èìåíåì, ÷òî è ñûíà Òàÿí-õàíà — Quqluq, Êó÷ëóê â ðóññêîÿçû÷íîé èñòîðè÷åñêîé ëèòåðàòóðå èëè Êó÷óëóê â «Ñîêðîâåííîì ñêàçàíèè».  «Ñîêðîâåííîì ñêàçàíèè» óïîìèíàþòñÿ Õóäó (ñòàðøèé ñûí), Ãàë, ×èëàóí (§ 198). — Ïðèì. ïåð.
449
«Ñîêðîâåííîå ñêàçàíèå», § 199. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
450
SHO p. 181; SHW p. 304; SHR pp. 126–128; SHC pp. 133.
451
Ñâèíüÿ ó÷èò Ìèíåðâó (ëàò.).
452
Gabriel, Subotai p. 20.
453
Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 735–736; Krause, Cingis Han p. n.
454
RT I p. 204; SHC p. 141; SHO pp. 190–191; SHR pp. 133–134.
455
Rachewiltz, 'The Title Chinggis Qan/Qaghan Reexamined,' in Heissig & Sagaster, Gedanke und Wirken pp. 281–298 (esp. pp. 282–288). For the earlier interpretations see Pelliot, 'Notes sur le "Turkestan",' loc. cit. p. 25; Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan, pp. 89, 246–247; Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I pp. 296–303; Vladimirtsoy Genghis pp. 37–38.
456
Telfer, Johann Schiltberger.
457
Moule SC Pelliot, Marco Polo I pp. 222–223. For the cult that developed around Genghis's banner see Pelliot, 'Notes sur le "Turkestan",' loc. cit. p. 32.
458
For the formation of the Mongol state in 1206 and some of the implications see Lane, Daily Life pp. 4, 12; A. M. Khazanov, 'The Origin of Genghis Khan's State: An Anthropological Approach,' Ethnografia Polska 24 (1980) pp. 29–39; A. Sarkozi, 'The Mandate of Heaven. Heavenly Support of the Mongol Ruler,' in Kellner Heinkele, Altaica Berolinensia pp. 215–221.
459
SHO pp. 194–195, 205–207; SHR pp. 137–138, 145–148; SHC p. 146.
460
RT I pp. 91–93.
461
SHO pp. 195–196; SHR p. 138; SHC p. 147; Pelliot, Campagnes p. 138.
462
SHO pp. 191–192, SHR pp. 134–136.
463
Mostaert, Sur quelques passages p. 74; SHC pp. 148–149; SHO pp. 177–179. For some interesting reflections on Jurchedei see Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 787–788.
464
SHC p. 153; SHO pp. 202–203; SHR p. 143; Pelliot, Campagnes pp. 155, 164, 340–341.
465
SHO pp. 209–210; SHR p. 151.
466
SHO pp. 208–209; SHR pp. 149–150.
467
SHO pp. 202, 207, 225; SHR pp. 143, 148, 167.
468
SHO p. 201; SHR p. 142; SHC pp. 129, 153; Mostaert, Sur quelques passages p. 129; Grousset, Conqueror of the World. For the higher seating of the paladins see Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 57.
469
For the nine paladins see Elisabetta Chiodo, 'History and Legend: The Nine Paladins of Cinggis (Yisiin orliig) according to the "Great Prayer" (Yeke ocig),' Ural-Altaischer Jahrbiicher 131 (1994) pp. 175–225 (esp. pp. 207–210). For the peculiarity of Qubilai's position see Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 793–794.
470
Ñîîòâåòñòâóþùèìè èçìåíåíèÿìè (ëàò.).
471
Ïîñëàíèå ê Ãàëàòàì ñâÿòîãî Àïîñòîëà Ïàâëà, 3:28.
472
Galatians 3: 18.
473
Vladimirtsov, Le regime social pp. 110–118.
474
Buell, Dictionary p. 287.
475
'The genealogies of the medieval Mongols… were ideological statements designed to enhance political unity, not authentic descriptions of biological relationships' (Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 325). Bodonchar stories usually involved the 'holy fool' or halfwit, who got the better of his supposed intellectual superiors (Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 260). Bodonchar's mother was Ah-lan Qo'a, previously married to Dobun-Mergen, said to be a Cyclopean figure with one eye (Buell, Dictionary p. 103, 122–123, 149).
476
Bacon, Obok pp. 47–65; Vladimirtsov, Le regime social pp. 56–74.
477
For a complete reassemblage of this jigsaw puzzle see Bold, Mongolian Nomadic Society.
478
Neil L. Whitehead, 'The Violent Edge of Empire,' in Ferguson & Whitehead, War in the Tribal Zone pp. 1–30.
479
Rudi Paul Lindner, 'What was a Nomadic Tribe?' Comparative Studies in Society and History 24 (1982) pp. 689–711. Unbelievably, there is yet another problem, as Rachewiltz notes: 'Unfortunately many of the problems concerning Cinggis's own lineage and the origin of the Mongol clans cannot be solved because the traditions in the Persian and Chinese sources and in the Secret History cannot be reconciled with each other' (Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 236).
480
Vladimirtsov, Le regime social pp. 110–112; Jagchid & Hyer, Mongolia's Culture pp. 19–72, 245–296; Lattimore, 'Honor and Loyalty: the case of Temujin and Jamukha,' in Clark & Draghi, Aspects pp. 127–138 (at pp. 130–132).
481
Fletcher, Studies pp. 17–19.
482
Bold, Mongolian Nomadic Society p. 110.
483
Lattimore, Studies in Frontier History pp. 510–513 (at p. 507).
484
Buell, Dictionary pp. 245–246.
485
SHC pp. 161–167.
486
JB I p. 37.
487
Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations iv part 1 pp. 250–251.
488
For Bujir see Rachewiltz, In the Service pp. 131–135.
489
SHO p. 210; SHR p. 151.
490
Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 763–765.]. Â èíòåðåñàõ ñîõðàíåíèÿ esprit de corps [Äóõ êîìàíäû, ñîñëîâíûé äóõ (ôð.).
491
JB I p. 32; Barthold, Turkestan p. 386 Spuler, The Muslim World II p. 36.
492
Michael C. Brose, 'Central Asians in Mongol China: Experiencing the "other" from two perspectives,' Medieval HistoryJournal 5 (2002) pp. 267–289.
493
Josiah Ober, 'I Besieged That Man"; Democracy's Revolutionary Start,' in Raaflaub et al, Origins of Democracy pp. 83–104; Lambert, Pkratries; Leveque, Cleisthenes; Forrest, Emergence of Greek Democracy.
494
For these earlier manifestations see Jean-Philippe Geley, 'L'ethnonyme mongol a l'epoque ðrecinggisquanide (XIIe siede),' Etudes Mongoles io (1979) pp. 59–89 (esp. pp. 65–83); P. B. Golden, 'Imperial Ideology and the Sources of Political Unity amongst Pre-Cinggisid Nomads of Western Eurasia,' Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 2 (1982) pp. 37–76; Thomas T. Allsen, 'Spiritual Geography and Political Legitimacy in the Eastern Steppe,' in Claessen & Oosten, Ideology pp. 116–135 (esp pp. 124–127); Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 296.
495
Lane, Daily Life p. 15.
496
Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 817–842.
497
M. Biran, 'The Mongol Transformation from the Steppe to Eurasian Empire,' Medieval Encounters 10 (2004) pp. 338–361. Almost every writer on Genghis emphasises his supposed debt to the Khitans (see Krader, Social Organisation p. 201). But as Biran underlines, the points of similarity were wholly artificial. The Mongols were much more destructive; they favoured direct, the Khitans indirect, rule; the Mongols depended on continuous expansion and paid their troops with booty, not wages; and the Khitans never mastered mass mobilisation for vast conquests (Biran, Qara Khitai pp. 202–206).
498
Slavery under the Mongols is much misunderstood. Usually they had bond slaves, and nothing similar to the system pre-1861 in the Southern States of the USA existed.
499
Vladimirtsov, Le regime social pp. 80–82.
500
Íèðóíû — «ñîáñòâåííî ìîíãîëû», äàðëåêèíû — «ìîíãîëû âîîáùå», ìîðëîêè — ãóìàíîèäû-êàííèáàëû, æèâóùèå ïîä çåìëåé, ïåðñîíàæè æàíðà ôàíòàñòèêè. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
501
For the Nirun/Durlukin distinction see Erdmann, Temudschin pp. 194–230.
502
For a survey of the vast change see Khazanov, Nomads pp. 128, 132–133, 148–152; Cribb, Nomads in Archaeology pp. 45–49.
503
Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations iv part 1 pp. 243–259.
504
Barfield, Perilous Frontier p. 192.
505
SHO pp. 212–213; SHR pp. 152–154; SHC pp. 162–166.
506
Pelliot, 'Notes sur le "Turkestan",' pp. 27–31; F. W Cleaves, A Chancellery Practice and the Mongols in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries,' Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 14 (1951) pp. 493–526 (esp. pp. 517–521); E. Haenisch, 'Weiterer Beitrag zum Text der Geheimen Geschichte der Mongolen,' Zeitschrift der deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft in (1961) pp. 139–149 (at pp. 144–149).
507
Atwood, Encyclopedia p. 298.
508
SHO pp. 213–219; SHR pp. 155–161; SHC pp. 166–171.
509
Pelliot, 'Notes sur le "Turkestan",' pp. 28–31; Mostaert, Sur quelques passages pp. 244–249, Edouard Chavannes, 'Inscriptions et pieces de la chancellerie chinoise de l'epoque mongole,' T'oung Pao 5 (1904) pp. 357–447 (at pp. 429–432); Yule & Cordier, Ser Marco Polo pp. 379–381.
510
JB I p. 31; Dawson, Mongol Mission pp. 26, 32–33; Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck p. 31.
511
SHO pp. 203, 214; SHR p. 157.
512
Hsiao, The Military Establishment of the Yuan Dynasty (Harvard 1978) pp. 33–35; T. Allsen, 'Guard and Government in the Reign of Grand Khan Mongke, 1251–59,' Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 46 (1986) pp. 495–521; Charles Melville, 'The keshig in Iran,' in Komaroff, Beyond the Legacy pp. 135–165.
513
JB I p. 40.
514
Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 877–878.
515
Lech, Mongolische Weltreich p. 98.
516
 ðóññêîì ïåðåâîäå «Ñîêðîâåííîãî ñêàçàíèÿ» ðå÷ü èäåò íå î âîèíàõ, à î þðòàõ (§ 242). Çäåñü òàêæå óêàçàíî, ÷òî ×èíãèñõàí äàë 10 000 þðò ìàòåðè è îò÷èãèíó, ñàìîìó ìëàäøåìó áðàòó îòöà Äàðèòàþ. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
517
SHC p. 175; SHO p. 225; SHR pp. 166–167.
518
JB I pp. 42–43; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 392–393 For the Korean land settlement see Henthorn, Korea p. 195.
519
F. Schurman, 'Mongolian Tributary Practices in the Thirteenth Century,' Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 19 (1956) pp. 304–389. A possible defence of Genghis is his oft declared tenet that leaving the succession to the one who emerged as most able would inevitably result in civil war, and this was best avoided by fixed inheritances (JB I p. 186).
520
Peter Jackson, 'From Ulus to Khanate: The Making of the Mongol States/ in Amitai-Preiss & Morgan, Mongol Empire pp. 12–38 (at pp. 35–36); Jagchid & Hyer, Mongolia's Culture p. 355.
521
ßðãó÷è — ñóäüè ïî ãðàæäàíñêèì äåëàì. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
522
The director of the bureau of political commissars was Belgutei (Buell, Dictionary pp. 15–16, 123–124, 166, 170, 224–225, 254, 279).
523
Äàðóõà÷è — íàìåñòíèêè. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
524
John Masson Smith, 'Mongol and Nomadic Taxation/ Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 33 (1970) pp. 46–85; D. O. Morgan, 'Who Ran the Mongol Empire?' Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 10 (1982) pp. 124–136; F. W Cleaves, 'Daruya and Gerege / Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 16 (1953) pp. 235–279.
525
For some of these problems see Biran, Qaidu pp. 69–77; Barthold, Four Studies I pp. 128–131.
526
JB II pp. 579–583; RT II pp. 406–409.
527
Christopher Atwood, 'Ulus, Emirs, Keshig, Elders, Signatures and Marriage Partners in Sneath, Imperial Statecraft pp. 141–173.
528
SHC p. 175. Eljigidei received 3,000 (up I, 000 from the 1206 figure), Temuge got 5,000 and Kolgen 4,000.
529
JB I p. 39; F. W Cleaves, 'Teb Tengerri/ in Ural-Altaische Jahrhueher 39 (1967) pp. 248–260; Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 869–873.
530
Grousset, Empire pp. 229–232.
531
SHO p. 226; SHR p. 168.
532
Pelliot, Campagnes p. 172; Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 99.
533
RT II p. 289; Grousset, Empire pp. 217, 585.
534
SHO p. 227; SHR pp. 169–170; SHC pp. 177–178.
535
SHO p. 227; SHR pp. 169–170; SHC pp. 177–178.
536
Grenard, Genghis p. 631; Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 877.
537
JB I p. 39; Barfield, Perilous Frontier p. 194.
538
SHO pp. 228–229; SHR p. 170.
539
All of this is dealt with in great detail in SWC pp. 176–182. See also Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 878–885.
540
SHO p. 231; SHR pp. 173–174; SHC pp. 179–181.
541
«Ñîêðîâåííîå ñêàçàíèå» (§ 246). — Ïðèì. ïåð.
542
SHO p. 231; SHR pp. 173–174; SHC pp. 179–181.
543
Fletcher, Studies pp. 34–35.
544
RT I p. 431.
545
For the increasing importance of beki see Vladimirtsov, Le regime social pp. 60–62; Pelliot, 'Notes sur le "Turkestan",' loc. cit pp. 49–51; Doefer, Elemente pp. 235–236.
546
JR II pp. 1077–1078; V N. Basilov, 'The Scythian Harp and the Kazakh Kobyz: In Search of Historical Connections/ in Seaman, Foundations of Empire pp. 74–100 (at p. 94).
547
J. J. Saunders, 'The Nomad as Empire Builder: A Comparison of the Arab and Mongol Conquests,' in Rice, Muslims and Mongols pp. 36–66; Jean Paul Roux, 'Tangri: Essai sur le ciel-dieu des peuples altaiques,' Revue de I'histoire des religions 149 (1956) pp. 49–82, 197–230; 150 (1956) pp. 27–54, 173–212; N. Palliser, 'Die Alte Religion der Mongolen und der Kultur Tschingis Chans,' Numen 3 (1956) pp. 178–229; Osman Uran, 'The Ideal of World Domination among the Medieval Turks/ Studia Islamica 4 (1955) pp. 77–90.
548
Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom p. 260.
549
Paul Meyvaert, 'An Unknown Letter of Hulagu II, Il-Khan of Persia tQ King Louis XI of France,' Viator 11 (1980) pp. 245–259 (at p. 252).
550
SHC p. 182.
551
L. Hambis, 'Un episode mal connu de I'histoire de Gengis-Khan / Journal des Savants, Jan-March 1975 pp. 3–46.
552
Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I pp. 77–78; Allsen, Culture and Conquest pp. 128–129; Meignan, Paris to Pekin (1885) pp. 354–355.
553
Amitai-Preiss & Morgan, Mongol Empire pp. 200–222.
554
Ratchnevsky, 'Die Rechtsverhaltnisse bei den Mongolen im 12–13 Jahrundert,' Central Asiatic Journal 31 (1987) pp. 64–110 (at pp. 78–80).
555
Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 12.
556
JB I pp. 204–205; Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck p. 90; Dawson Mongol Mission p. 17.
557
Alinge, Mongolische Gesetze p. 43; Lech, Mongolische Weltreich p. 96; Silvestre de Sacy, Chrestomathie arabe II pp. 161–162; d'Ohsson, Histoire II p. 618. For the lightning dragon see RT I p. 82.
558
Dawson, Mongol Mission p. ix.
559
ibid. pp. 54–56, 63, 194, 196; Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck p. 117; Heinrich Dorrie, 'Drei Texte der Geschichte der Ungarn und der Mongolen,' Nachtrichten der Akademie der Wissenschajten in Gottingen 6 (1956) pp. 125–202 (at p. 175); Skelton, Marston 8i Painter, Vinland Map pp. 90–91.
560
Yule & Cordier, Ser Marco Polo I pp. 385–386; Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither II p. 224.
561
Darling, Social Justice pp. 103–106.
562
Ñëó÷àéíûõ çàìå÷àíèé (ëàò.).
563
See especially the four-part article by David Ayalon, 'The Great Yasa of Chingiz Khan: A Re-examination,' Studia Islamica 33 (1970) pp. 97–140; 34 (1971) pp. 151–180; 36 (1972) pp. 117–158; 38 (1973) pp. 107–156. He writes that there are 'possibly insuperable difficulties in establishing the nature and contents of the Mongol yasa, its association with Chingiz Khan himself, or even whether it existed as a written coherent, enforceable code of laws' (34 (1971) p. 172).
564
D. O. Morgan, 'The "Great Yasa" of Chingiz Khan and Mongol Law in the Ilkhanate,' Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 49 (1986) pp. 163–176 (at pp. 169–170).
565
Gibb, Ibn Battuta pp. 560–561; cf also Robert Irwin, 'What the Partridge Told the Eagle: A Neglected Arabic Source on Chinggis Khan and the Early History of the Mongols,' in Amitai-Preiss & Morgan, Mongol Empire pp. 5–11.
566
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles p. 25.
567
Morgan, 'Great Yasa' p. 169.
568
Çàêîí íå îáÿçàòåëåí, åñëè íå îáíàðîäîâàí (ëàò.).
569
Ïðåäóáåæäåíèå, î÷åðíèòåëüñòâî (ëàò.).
570
Which is essentially what the arch-sceptic Ayalon does (Ayalon, 'The Great Yasa' (1971) p. 134; (1972) pp. 152–154). Even Morgan, who accepts part of Ayaloris argument, decisively parts company from him at this point (Morgan, 'Great Yasa' p. 166).
571
Driver & Miles, Babylonian Laws; Darling, Social Justice pp. 15–32 (esp pp. 21–22).
572
Van Seters, Pentateuch, esp. pp. 190–210.
573
Exodus 12.
574
Blume, Justinian Code (2009).
575
Holtman, Napoleonic Revolution.
576
Lech, Mongolische Weltreich p. 96.
577
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles pp. 84–85.
578
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles p. 86.
579
G. Vernadsky, 'The Scope and Content of Chingis Khan's Yasa,' Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies (1938) pp. 337–360 (at pp. 350–351).
580
G. Vernadsky, 'The Scope and Content of Chingis Khan's Yasa,' Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies (1938) p. 350; Lech, Mongolische Weltreich p. 125.
581
Silvestre de Sacy, Chrestomathie arabe II p. 161.
582
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles pp. 83–85.
583
Ayalon argues that the exemption for religious leaders was not in the original Yasa — with the implication that Genghis's meeting with Chang Chun (see Chapter 13) may have been a crucial influence (Ayalon, 'Great Yasa' (197t) p. 121).
584
Alinge, Mongolische Gesetze p. 67; Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 15.
585
Spuler, Goldene Horde p. 362; Spuler, Mongolen in Iran p. 373; Vladimirtsov, Genghis Khan p. 63.
586
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles pp. 184–185.
587
Íåòÿæêèå ïðåñòóïëåíèÿ, íå çàòðàãèâàþùèå èíòåðåñîâ ïðàâèòåëÿ, êîòîðûå íå êàðàëèñü ñìåðòíîé êàçíüþ èëè êîíôèñêàöèåé èìóùåñòâà. — Ïðèì. ðåä.
588
JR II p. 1079; Vernadsky, 'Scope and Content,' loc. cit. p. 352; J. A. Boyle, 'Kirakos of Gandrak on the Mongols,' Central Asiatic Journal (1963) pp. 199–214 (at pp. 201–202).
589
Ayalon, 'Great Yasa' (1971) pp. 107, 118–119.
590
Vladimirtsov, Genghis Khan pp. 65–66.
591
Bouillane de Lacoste, Pays sacre pp. 80–81.
592
Vernadsky, 'Scope and Content' loc. cit. p. 358.
593
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 195.
594
JR II p. 953.
595
Rachewiltz, 'Some Reflections on Cinggis Qan's Jasa,' East Asian History 6 (1993) pp. 91–104.
596
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles p. 86.
597
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles p. 35.
598
Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 17; Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck pp. 93–94; Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora iv. p. 388; Boyle, 'Kirakos of Kanjak,' loc. cit. p. 202; Jagchid & Hyer, Mongolia's Culture pp. 95–96; Vernadsky, Mongols and Russia p. 102.
599
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles p. 36; Vernadsky, 'Scope and Content,' loc. cit. p. 356.
600
JR II pp. 1080–1081; SHO pp. 159–160, 192, 269–270; SHR pp. 105–106,134–136, 207–208.
601
JR II p. 953; JB I p. 53; Pelliot, Recherches p. 98; Yule & Cordier, Ser Marco Polo pp. 266–268; Latham, Travels of Marco Polo p. 101.
602
Vernadsky, 'Scope and Content,' loc. cit. p. 356.
603
Óãîëîâíîå çàêîíîäàòåëüñòâî Àíãëèè è Óýëüñà â 1688–1815 ãîäàõ, ñîäåðæàâøåå ìíîãî ñòàòåé î íàêàçàíèè ñìåðòíîé êàçíüþ. — Ïðèì. àâò.
604
RT II pp. 510–511.
605
Ostrowski, Muscovy and the Mongols p. 72.
606
Vernadsky, 'Scope and Content,' loc. cit. p. 342.
607
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 194.
608
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 194.
609
Pelliot, 'Les Mongols et la papaute,' Revue de I'Orient chretien 23 (1923) pp. 16, 128; E. Voegelin, 'The Mongol orders of submission to European powers, 1245–1255,' Byzantion 15 (1942) pp. 378–413 (esp. pp. 404–409).
610
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles pp. 146, 158; Vernadsky, The Mongols and Russia pp. 99–110.
611
Riasanovsky Fundamental Principles p. 149.
612
Riasanovsky Fundamental Principles. pp. 151–152; Lech, Mongolische Weltreich pp. 96–97; Sylvestre de Sacy, Chrestomatie arabe II p. 161.
613
Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 17; Vernadsky 'Scope and Content' loc. cit. pp. 352–353.
614
Èç ïèñüìà êàïèòàíà Ãóëëèâåðà äÿäå Ñèìïñîíó: Äæîíàòàí Ñâèôò, «Ïóòåøåñòâèå Ãóëëèâåðà». — Ïðèì. àâò.
615
JR II pp. 1080–1081.
616
Lewis, Islam I pp. 89–96.
617
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles p. 159.
618
Dawson, Mongol Mission pp. 14–15; Ratchnevsky, 'Die Yasa (Jasaq) Cinggis Khans und ihre Problematik,' in G. Hazai & P. Zieme, Sprache, Geschichte und Kultur pp. 471–487.
619
E. Endicott-West, 'Aspects of Khitan Liao and Mongolian Yuan Rule: A Comparative Perspective,' in Seaman & Marks, Rulers from the Steppe pp. 199–222.
620
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles pp. 173–189 (esp. pp. 182–183).
621
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles pp. 183–184.
622
D. Aigle, 'Le grand jasaq de Gengis-Khan, l'empire, la culture Mongole et la shan a,'Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 47 (2004) pp. 31–79.
623
Ayalon, 'Great Yasa,' loc. cit. (1971) p. 164.
624
Ayalon, 'Great Yasa,' loc. cit. (1971) pp. 137–138.
625
Ostrowski, Muscovy p. 71.
626
Vernadsky, 'Scope and Content,' loc. cit. p. 360; Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles pp. 278–297; Ch'en, Chinese Legal Tradition.
627
Darling, Social Justice pp. 105–125 (esp. pp. 103–105, in); Ayalon, 'Great Yasa,' loc. cit. (1973) ð. 141.
628
Òàê ïðîõîäèò ìèðñêàÿ ñëàâà (ëàò.).
629
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles p. 88.
630
Rachewiltz, 'Muqali, Bol, Tas and An-t'ung,' Papers on Far Eastern History 15 (1977) ðð. 45–62 (at p. 47); Pelliot, 'Notes sur le "Turkestan",' loc. cit. pp. 12–56 (at p. 33); Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 815.
631
RT II pp. 272–275; Vladimirtsov, Genghis p. 58; d'Ohsson, Histoire II pp. 3–5.
632
Barthold, Turkestan pp. 383–385; Vladimirtsov, Genghis pp. 67–68.
633
Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo II pp. 858–859; Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan, p. 224.
634
Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 33; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 383–385.
635
Buell, Dictionary pp. 261–262.
636
Hartog, Genghis Khan p. 45; Lane, Daily Life pp. 97–98.
637
Michael Edwards & James C. Stanfield, 'Lord of the Mongols: Genghis Khan,' National Geographic 190 (December 1996) pp. 14–23.
638
JB I p. 32.
639
JB I p. 30; Jagchid & Hyer, Mongolia's Culture pp. 370–372.
640
JB I p. 33; Benedetto, Marco Polo pp. 114–116; Beazley, John de Piano Carpini p. 121.
641
JB I p. 40; Vernadsky, 'Scope and Content / loc. cit. p. 351; Riasanovsky Fundamental Principles p. 164.
642
JB I pp. 27–28; Dawson, Mongol Mission pp. 100–101.
643
JB I pp. 28–29.
644
Yule, Cathay II pp. 234–240.
645
Jagchid & Hyer, Mongolia's Culture pp. 27–37.
646
Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck p. 85.
647
N. T. Munkuyer, A Mongolian Hunting Practice of the Thirteenth Century/ in Heissig et al, Tractata Altaica pp. 417–435 (esp. pp. 421–423).
648
Risch, Johann de Piano Carpini pp. 161–169.
649
H. D. Martin, 'The Mongol Army/ Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 75 (1943) pp. 46–85 (at p. 70); Robinson, Oriental Armour p. 138.
650
Hildinger, Story of the Mongols p. 72.
651
Barthold, Turkestan p. 421; Denis Sinor, 'The Inner Asian Warrior/ Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (1981) pp. 133–144 (at p. 137).
652
Martin, Rise of Chinggis Khan p. 19; Swietoslawski, Arms and Armour.
653
E. G. Pulleybank, 'Why Tockosian?' Journal of Indo-European Studies 23 (1995) pp. 415–430; Edward McEwan, Robert L. Miller & A. Bergman, 'Early Bow Designs and Construction,' Scientific American 264 (June 1991) pp. 50–56; Jagchid & Hyer, Mongolia's Culture p. 367.
654
Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 714–715; Íîê-Lam Chan, 'Siting by Bowshot: A Mongolian Custom and its Sociopolitical and Cultural Implications / Asia Major, 3rd series 4 (1991) pp. 53–78.
655
Buell, Dictionary pp. 112–114; Turnbull & McBride, The Mongols pp. 13–22; Gabriel & Boose, Great Battles of Antiquity pp. 539–541.
656
Parker, Tartars p. 258.
657
For this subject in general see Mayor, Greek Fire. For a study of poisoned arrows in a specific area (the American West) see Jones, Poison Arrows.
658
Marsden, Marco Polo, p. 214; Vernadsky, Mongols and Russia pp. 126–128; Hyland, Medieval Warhorse p. 131; S. Jagchid & C. R. Bawden, 'Some Notes on the Horse Policy of the Yuan Dynasty/ Central Asiatic Journal 10 (1965) pp. 246–265.
659
Lane, Genghis Khan p. 31. Mounted archery was made obsolete in great warfare by the invention of firearms but still survived in 'little wars' like those of the American West. The Comanches were particularly skilled exponents (Fehrenbach, Comanches pp. 124–125).
660
Denis Sinor, 'On Mongol Strategy,' Proceedings of the Fourth East Asian Altaistic Conference (Taipei 1971) pp. 238–249.
661
T. Allsen, 'Mongolian Princes and Their Merchant Partners, 1200–1260,' Asia Major 2 (1989) pp. 83–126.
662
Dvornik, Intelligence Services p. 274.
663
JB I p. 373; Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 36; May, Art of War pp. 69–70.
664
Yule & Cordier, Ser Marco Polo pp. 121–131.
665
Hollyn Conant, 'Genghis Khan's Communications Network,' Military Review 94 (August 1994) pp. 65–77.
666
F. Isono, 'Kuriyen Reconsidered,' Journal of the Anglo-Mongolian Society 12 (1989) ðð. 3-25.
667
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles p. 83.
668
Moule & Pelliot, Marco Polo I p. 173.
669
Martin, Rise of Chingis Khan p. 17; Jagchid & Hyer, Mongolia's Culture pp. 370–372; T. Allsen, Mongol Imperialism p. 25. For the river crossing see Risch, Carpini p. 17.
670
Dawson, Mongol Mission pp. 33–34.
671
Leo de Hartog, 'The Army of Genghis Khan,' Army Defence Journal 109 (1979) pp. 476–485 (at p. 480).
672
SHO p. 282.
673
Liddell Hart, Great Captains Unveiled p. 28.
674
Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 36.
675
Skelton, Marston & Painter, Vinland Map pp. 88–89.
676
SHO p. 285.
677
Martin, 'Mongol Army' loc. cit.; Gabriel & Boose, Great Battles of Antiquity pp. 545–547.
678
SHO pp. 118–125; SHR pp. 65–72.
679
Skelton, Marston & Painter, Vinland Map pp. 98–99; Risch, Carpini p. 175.
680
Hartog, Army of Genghis Khan,' loc. cit. p. 482.
681
SHO p. 286.
682
The feigned retreat is of course as old as warfare itself. It was used by the Spartans at Thermopylae in 480 ÂÑ to lure Xerxes' Immortals into a trap (Herodotus 8. 24) and by William the Conqueror at the Battle of Hastings in 1066 (see McLynn, 1066 p. 224). As late as 1866 the Sioux chief Red Cloud used it to inflict defeat on the US cavalry in the 'Fetterman Massacre'. For its use in warfare in general see Alexander, How Wars are Won pp. 94–95.
683
For the huge superiority of the Mongol horses see Denis Sinor, 'What is Inner Asia?' in Heissig, Altaica Collecta pp. 245–258 (at p. 251); Sinor, 'Inner Asian Warriors,' Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (1981) pp. 133–144 (at p. 137). For the special circumstances surrounding the emergence of the Mongol heavy cavalry see V P. Alekseev, 'Some Aspects of the Study of Productive Factors in the Empire of Chingiz Khan,' in Seaman & Marks, Rulers from the Steppe pp. 186–198 (at p. 192).
684
Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 37.
685
As in the relendess pursuit of Shah Muhammad II in 1220–1221 and Bela TV of Hungary in 1241 (see below). Cf also Vernadsky, Mongols and Russia pp. 110–120.
686
RT I p. 204; Vladimirtsov, Genghis p. 65.
687
RT I pp. 204–205; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 361–362; d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 104–105.
688
Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 18.
689
Õóäó — ñòàðøèé ñûí Òîõòîà-áåêè («Ñîêðîâåííîå ñêàçàíèå», § 198). — Ïðèì. ïåð.
690
RT I pp. 226–227.
691
Barthold, Turkestan pp. 401–402.
692
For a general survey of the Forest Peoples see Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 852–854. For the Buriyat see West, Encyclopedia pp. 132–133 and Matthiessen, Baikal. For the Oyirad see RT I pp. 54–57; Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 852. For the Turned see RT I p. 58. For the Tuvans see Krueger, Tuvan Manual; M. N. Mongush, 'Tuvans of Mongolia and China,' International Journal of Central Asian Studies 1 (1996) pp. 225–243; Lattimore, Mongols of Manchuria p. 165; Bowles, The People of Asia pp. 278–279.
693
Íàçâàíèå ñåâåðîàìåðèêàíñêîãî îëåíÿ. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
694
Vladimirtsov, Le regime social op. cit. pp. 41, 61.
695
RT I p. 59.
696
SHC p. 7.
697
SHO pp. 115–117; SHR pp. 62–65.
698
RT I p. 204; Martin, Rise of Chingis Khan p. 102.
699
Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 852.
700
SHC p. 173; Pelliot, Notes sur l'histoire de la Horde d'Or pp. 141–142.
701
Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 854. For the Mongol mania for gyrfalcons see Hambis, Marco Polo p. 426.
702
Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 851. For Qorchi's appointment to this position at the 1206 quriltai see SHO pp. 196–197; SHR pp. 138–139.
703
SHO p. 224; SHR p. 166.
704
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan pp. 117–118, 254–255.
705
RT I p. 227.
706
SHW p. 311; SHO p. 223; SHR p. 165.
707
For this ride see Carruthers, Unknown Mongolia I pp. 114–115.
708
Áîëüøîé Åíèñåé. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
709
Donner, Siberie p. 132.
710
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 157.
711
Ìàñòåðñêèé ìàíåâð, õîä, ïðèåì (ôð.).
712
SHO p. 224; SHR pp. 165–166.
713
SHW p. 312.
714
Pelliot, Notes critiques d'histoire Kalmouke I pp. 55–64; R D. Buell, 'Early Mongol Expansion in Western Siberia and Turkestan (1207–1219): A Reconstruction,' Central Asiatic Journal 36 (1992) pp. 1–32 opts for a different chronology for these events.
715
Colin Mackerras, Uighur Empire.
716
Golden, Turkic Peoples pp. 176–183; Barfield, Perilous Frontier pp. 165–169.
717
Beshbaliq (Jimsar) is located at 43° 59' N, 89° 4' E; Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations iv part 2 p. 578; Beckwith, Empires of the Silk Road pp. 148, 159; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 82–95.
718
Barthold, Turkestan pp. 48–52; B. Spuler, History of the Mongols (1972) pp. 31, 176; Colin Mackerras, 'The Uighurs,' in Sinor, Cambridge History pp. 317–342.
719
Brose, Subjects and Masters pp. 88–89.
720
JB I pp. 53–61; Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither I p. 209; d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 429–435.
721
«Ñîêðîâåííîå ñêàçàíèå», § 238. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 260.
722
Brose, Subjects and Masters pp. 86–87.
723
JB I pp. 44–47; SHO pp. 221–222; SHR p. 163; Thomas T. Allsen, 'The Yuan Dynasty and the Uighurs of Turfan in the Thirteenth Century,' in Rossabi, China among Equals pp. 248–280 (at pp. 246–248); d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 419.
724
JB I pp. 46–47; Allsen, 'The Yuan Dynasty,' loc. cit. p. 247.
725
JB I p. 140.
726
Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 848–849; Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck pp. 283–284; Pelliot, Recherches pp. 667–67. Bretschneider ties himself in knots on this issue, absurdly claiming that Altalun died before she could marry the idiqut, that Genghis substituted another daughter but that Barchuq then died before he could marry her (Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 261); JB I p. 175; Weatherford, Secret History of the Mongol Queens pp. 47, 51, 57, 69–72, 79–80, 91, 97, 102.
727
Brose, Subjects and Masters pp. 50–54.
728
Brose, Subjects and Masters pp. 259, 264–265. For the Uighur script see J. Richard, 'La limite occidentale de l'expansion de l'alphabet Ouighour,' Journal Asiatique 239 (1951) pp. 71–75. For their culture in general see Hamilton, Les Ouighurs.
729
SHO p. 221; SHR p. 162; Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 843; Biran, Qara Khitaip. 75.
730
The fundamental work on the Tanguts is Dunnell, Great State of White and High, but there is also much valuable work in learned articles and theses: Mary Ferenczy, 'The Foundation of Tangut Statehood as seen by Chinese Historiographers,' in Ligeti, Tibetan and Buddhist Studies I pp. 241–249; Dunnell, 'Who are the Tanguts? Remarks on Tangut Ethnogenesis and the Ethnonym Tangut,' Journal of Asian History 18 (1984) pp. 778–789; Paul Friedland, A Reconstruction of Early Tangut History,' Ph.D. thesis, University of Washington 1969. See also Kwanten & Hesse, Tangut… Studies; Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations, iv part 1 pp. 206–214.
731
Mote, Imperial China pp. 257–259.
732
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History pp. 155–157, 162, 165, 168–170, 196.
733
Ksenia Kepping, 'The Name of the Tangut Empire,' T'oung Pao 80 (1994) pp. 357–376; Beckwith, Silk Road p. 31; Gerard Clauson, 'The Future of Tangut (Hsi Hsia) Studies,' Asia Major 11 (1964) pp. 54–77.
734
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History pp. 123–153; Mote, Imperial China pp. 257–259; Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom pp. 98–100, 593.
735
Mote, Imperial China pp. 261–264; Solonin, Tangut Chan Buddhism.
736
Ó àâòîðà ×óí-öçóí (Ch'ung-Tsung). — Ïðèì. ïåð.
737
Biran, Qara Khitai p. 64; Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History pp. 155, 197.
738
H. D. Martin, 'The Mongol Wars with Hsi Hsia, 1205–1227,' Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1942) pp. 195–228 (at pp. 198–199).
739
RT I p. 204.
740
For details of the Tangut army see Stein, Tibetan Civilization pp. 70–77.
741
G. Jenkins, A Note on Climatic Cycles and the Rise of Genghis Khan,' Central Asiatic Journal (1974) pp. 217–226.
742
Togan, Flexibility p. 70; Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History pp. 164, 206; Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations iv part 1 p. 213.
743
Mote, Imperial China p. 254; Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 157.
744
Mote, Imperial China p. 254; Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 183.
745
RT I p. 204.
746
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 205.
747
Atwood, Encyclopedia p. 590; Ruth W Dunnell, 'The Fall of the XIa Empire: Sino-Steppe Relations in the Late Twelfth to Early Thirteenth Centuries,' in Seaman & Marks, Rulers from the Steppe pp. 158–183.
748
Äðóãèå íàïèñàíèÿ — Âàëàõàé (Óéðàêà). — Ïðèì. ïåð.
749
Martin, Rise p. 116. Dabsun Nor (Lake Dabuxun) is at approx. 37° N, 95° E.
750
Hambis, Genghis pp. 98–99.
751
Krause, Cingis Han p. 29.
752
Martin, Rise p. 117.
753
Krause, Cingis Han p. 29.
754
Martin, Genghis Khan p. 118.
755
Martin, Genghis Khan p. 118.
756
There is some suggestion in the sources that the Tanguts were regarded as inferior by the Jin and possibly even the Mongols. Rubruck, in his asides about the Tanguts, can find nothing good to say about them except that they were 'swarthy'. (Jackson & Morgan Rubruck p. 159).
757
Martin, Rise p. 118.
758
RT II pp. 289–290; SHR pp. 177–178.
759
Martin, Rise pp. 119–120.
760
Vernadsky, Mongols and Russia pp. 43–44.
761
SHR p. 18.
762
Òàê â òåêñòå àâòîðà. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
763
SHO pp. 81–82; SHR p. 33.
764
SHO pp. 73–74; SHR pp. 26–27.
765
SHR p. 20–21.
766
SHR p. 15; Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 153.
767
Lattimore, Mongol Journeys p. 182.
768
Hedley, Tramps p. 245.
769
De Windt, From Pekin p. 117. De Windt reported that one of the key Mongolian phrases to learn was 'tie up your dogs', (ibid, p. 118).
770
Îáûêíîâåííûì ÷åëîâåêîì (ôð.).
771
This is certainly one war hero's view. See McLynn, Fitzroy Maclean p. 101. On spur-of-the-moment impulses the words of Conrad's Lord Jim (in the film of that name) are worth bearing in mind: 'I've been a so-called coward and a so-called hero, and there's not the thickness of a sheet of paper between them.'.
772
SHO pp. 118–119; SHR pp. 65–67. The ingratitude was noticed in Dunnell, Chinggis Khan p. 40.
773
SHO pp. 226–227; SHR pp. 168–170.
774
SHO pp. 107–108; SHR pp. 54–56.
775
SHO pp. 178–180; SHR pp. 123–124.
776
Áåç ñòðàõà è óïðåêà (ôð.).
777
SHO pp. 90, 105, 186; SHR pp. 39, 53, 130–132.
778
JR II pp. 1041–1042; d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 413–414. Barthold, however, amazingly says he had unusual self-control and ability to curb his temper (Turkestan p. 459).
779
Vladimirtsov, Genghis pp. 162–163.
780
Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom p. 234.
781
SHO pp. 71–72, 74–76, 184, 252, 260; SHR pp. 25–29, 126–128, 192–193, 198–199.
782
SHO pp. 207–208; SHR pp. 148–149.
783
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 164.
784
Jackson, Mongols and the West p. 47; Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan pp. 158–159. 'Genghis was not someone who shared' (L. Hambis, 'Un episode mal connu,' loc. cit. p. 7).
785
Vernadsky, Mongols and Russia p. 6; Grousset, Empire p. 248.
786
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 161.
787
JR II p. 990.
788
Òåì ñàìûì, ôàêòè÷åñêè (ëàò.).
789
John Masson Smith, 'The Mongols and World Conquest,' Mongoliea 5 (1994) pp. 206–214.
790
Vladimirtsov, Genghis pp. 168–169.
791
Çíà÷èìîñòè, âåëè÷èÿ, àâòîðèòåòà (ëàò.).
792
JR II p. 1077; Antoine Mostaert, 'A propos de quelques portraits d'empereurs mongols,' Asia Major (1927) pp. 19–156; Pelliot, 'L'edition collective des oeuvres de Wang Kouo-Wei,' T'oung Pao 26 (1929) pp. 113–182 (at p. 166); Pelliot, 'Notes sur le "Turkestan",' T'oung Pao 27 (1930) pp. 12–56 (at p. 13).
793
RT II p. 295.
794
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles p. 88.
795
RT II p. 295; Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles p. 87.
796
ibid. He also saw no great distinction between the arts of war and peace. He said that if you can manage your own house, you can manage an estate, and if you can keep ten men in military order, you can discipline 10,000.
797
RT II p. 295.
798
RT II p. 296.
799
RT II pp. 294–295; SHO p. 15.
800
Needham, Science and Civilization v part 4 pp. 103–106, 141–150.
801
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles p. 88; d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 412. Genghis himself liked a drink, though in moderation, and liked to have guitars playing and minstrels singing while he drank, as did Batu and many of his other descendants (Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 57; Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck p. 175).
802
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles p. 89.
803
ibid. p. 91; Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 153.
804
Ïðåäøåñòâåííèê ñóïåðìåíà Íèöøå (ôð.).
805
JR II pp. 1077–1078.
806
Foltz, Religions of the Silk Road p. 113; Anatoly M. Khazanov, 'Muhammad and Jenghiz Khan Compared: The Religious Factor in World Empire Building,' Comparative Studies in History and Society 35 (1993) pp. 461–479.
807
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 197.
808
DeWeese, Islamization pp. 100–101.
809
Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom pp. 169–218.
810
Nikolai N. Seleznyov, 'Nestorius of Constantinople: Condemnation, Suppression, Veneration,' Journal of Eastern Christian Studies 62 (2010) pp. 165–190.
811
Francoise Michaud, 'Eastern Christianities,' in Angold, Cambridge History of Christianity v pp. 373–403.
812
Pelliot, Recherches pp. 623–644.
813
Henri Bernard, La decouverte des nestoriens; John Stewart, Nestorian Missionary Enterprise; Morris Rossabi, Voyager from Xanadu.
814
Pelliot, Recherches op. cit.
815
Wittfogel & Feng, Liao p. 308; Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations iv part 1 pp. 74–76; Pelliot, Recherches p. 626.
816
JB I p. 259; Boyle, Successors p. 188; Pelliot, Recherches pp. 242–248.
817
Dawson, Mongol Mission pp. 144–145, 177–179; Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck pp. 163–164, 211–214.
818
 ðóññêîì ïåðåâîäå ýòè ñëîâà ïðèíàäëåæàò Äæàìóõå, êîòîðûé õàðàêòåðèçóåò âîèíñòâî ×èíãèñõàíà ïî ïðîñüáå Òàÿí-õàíà: «Èç-çà íåíàñòüÿ íå ïîäêà÷àåò, à íà ñòîÿíêó — ãëÿäèøü — îïîçäàåò» («Ñîêðîâåííîå ñêàçàíèå», § 195). — Ïðèì. ïåð.
819
SHO pp. 173–176; SHR pp. 118–121.
820
JB II p. 549; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 175–177; Vladimirtsov, Le regime social pp. 66–67.
821
However, Rashid states categorically that Temuge was Genghis's favourite brother (RT I p. 137).
822
For the complex sibling rivalries among Genghis's four sons see Pelliot, Notes sur I'histoire pp. 10–27. Jochi was not his eldest child, as his sister Fujin was older (Boyle, Successors p. 97).
823
SHO pp. 136–137, 202; SHR pp. 84, 143.
824
Larry Moses, 'The Quarrelling Sons in the Secret History of the Mongols," Journal of Asian Folklore Studies 100 (1987) pp. 63–68.
825
JR II p. 1096. See also P. Golden, 'Tusi, the Turkic Name of Joci,' Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 55 (2002) pp. 143–151.
826
RT I p. 227.
827
Boyle, Successors pp. 97–116 (esp. pp. 97–100).
828
For general surveys of his character and personality see Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I pp. 250–254; Hambis, Yuan Che pp. 57–64.
829
Abel-Remusat, Nouveaux melanges pp. 61–63; PeUiot & Hambis, Campagnes p. 298.
830
JB I p. 40; Boyle, Successors pp. 154–155; Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 164.
831
JB I p. 41; Grousset, Empire pp. 67–71, 228–230, 236–238.
832
JR II pp. 1106–1107, 1110–1111, 1144–1148; RT I p. 44.
833
Boyle, Successors p. 138.
834
RT I p. 77.
835
Ìîãåòóãåí ó àâòîðà. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
836
For a complete account of the lineage of the house of Chagatai see Boyle, Successors pp. 135–144. For Yesulun, Togen and Mogetugen, ibid. pp. 135–137.
837
Grousset, Empire p. 256.
838
Îáîðîíèòåëüíîé ïîëèòèêè. — Ïðèì. ðåä.
839
JR II pp. 1141–1142.
840
For Ogodei see, initially, Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I pp. 125, 253, 287; PeUiot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 266, 375 and, in much greater detail, Chapter Fourteen below.
841
JB II pp. 552–553; Ratchnevsky, 'La condition de la femme mongole,' loc. cit. pp. 517–518.
842
RT I p.
843
SHO pp. 205–207; SHR pp. 145–148.
844
 ðóññêîì âàðèàíòå «Ñîêðîâåííîãî ñêàçàíèÿ» òàòàðèí — íå ïîéìàííûé ðàçáîéíèê, à áðîäÿãà, çàøåäøèé â þðòó, è íàïàëà íà íåãî Àëòàíè, æåíà Áîðîõóëà, êîòîðîé ïîìîãëè ×æåòàé è ×æåëüìè («Ñîêðîâåííîå ñêàçàíèå», § 214). — Ïðèì. ïåð.
845
Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 805–806; Rachewiltz, In the Service pp. 76–78.
846
RT I p. 147; Boyle, Successors p. 98. Ayalon 'Great Yasa' (1971) pp. 152–154) claims that Juvaini overestimated Tolui's importance.
847
For Tolui's lineage see Boyle, Successors, pp. 159–162.
848
For Tolui's lineage see Boyle, Successors, p. 164.
849
JR II p. 1093; Thomas AUsen, 'The Yuan Dynasty and the Uighurs of Turfan,' loc. cit. p. 271.
850
For Shigi see Ratchnevsky, 'Sigi-qutuqu, ein mongolischer Gefolgsmann im 12–13 Jahrhundert,' Central Asiatic Journal 10 (1965) pp. 87–120; Rachewiltz, In the Service pp. 75–94. The foundling story is in JR II p. 1093 and in F. Aubin, 'Le statut de l'enfant dans la societe mongole,' L'Enfant 35 (1975) pp. 459–599 (at pp. 471–472) but is adequately rebutted in Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 497.
851
Harcourt & Evans, Said Gah-I-Shaukati; Philott, Baz-nama-yi Nasiri; Argue, George Turberville; Latham, Travels of Marco Polo p. 144.
852
×óäî ìèðà, óäèâëåíèå ìèðà (ëàò.).
853
Macdonald, Falcon pp. 52–56, 90.
854
Macdonald, Falcon p. 59.
855
For an exact description and analysis of the swans Genghis's falcons might have killed see Baker, Game Birds pp. 20–27; cf also Upton, Falconry.
856
RT I p. 147.
857
Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 726.
858
RT I p. 148; JR II pp. 1091–1092.
859
JR II p. 1092.
860
RT I p. 149.
861
JR II p. 1007; Lech, Mongolische Weltreich pp. 98, 201–203; Waley, Travels of an Alchemist p. 54.
862
The judgement is that of Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 165. For the all-girl orchestra see Vladimirtsov, Genghis p. 124.
863
Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 726–727.
864
SHO pp. 130–131; SHR p. 79.
865
Îñêîðáëåíèå åãî (åå) âåëè÷åñòâà (ôð.).
866
Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 577.
867
RT I pp. 148–149; d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 418–419.
868
See the opposing views in Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes p. 375 and F. Aubin, 'Le statut de l'enfant,' loc. cit. pp. 471–475.
869
Pelliot, Notes critiques d'histoire Kalmouke, I pp. 61–62; Boyle, Successors p. 164; Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 854–856, 914–915.
870
Quoted in Zhao, Marriage p. 37.
871
Quoted in Zhao, Marriage pp. 28–29.
872
RT I pp. 25–26.
873
Zhao, Marriage pp. 93–118 (Ongirrad); pp. 119–126 (Ikires); pp. 127–146 (Oyirad); pp. 163–178 (Uighurs). See also Jennifer Holmgren, 'Observations on Marriage and Inheritance Practices in Early Mongol and Yuan Society with Particular Reference to the Levirate,' Journal of Asian History 20 (1986) pp. 127–192.
874
May, Culture and Customs pp. 37–39, 103–115.
875
'A Mongol woman does many things that in other Asiatic socities would be men's work. She does them responsibly and without being told, because in the normal life the men are frequently away from home' (Lattimore, Mongol Journeys p. 186).
876
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles p. 242.
877
Lane, Daily Life pp. 228–229.
878
Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck p. 74.
879
For a full analysis of Borte in this period see Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 350–357.
880
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 329.
881
Marsden, Travels of Marco Polo pp. 417–419.
882
Jennifer Holmgren, 'Observations on Marriage,' loc. cit.; Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles pp. 234–238.
883
RT I p. 89.
884
Zhao, Marriage pp. 18–19.
885
Skelton, Marston & Painter, Vinland Map.
886
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles pp. 241–242.
887
Schuyler Cammann, 'Mongol Costume: Historical and Recent,' in Sinor, Aspects pp. 157–166; Dawson, Mongol Mission pp. 7–8; Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck p. 89; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 52–53; Yule, Cathay II p. 222; Waley, Travels of an Alchemist p. 67.
888
Ratchnevsky, 'La condition de la femme mongole,' loc. cit p. 516.
889
Gibb, Ibn Battuta II p. 480; Dunn, Adventures pp. 299–300; Hamdun & King, Ibn Battuta pp. 38–39. For Christian disapproval see Lisa Balabanlilar, 'The Begims of the Mystic Feast. Turco-Mongol Tradition in the Mughal Harem,' Journal of Asian Studies 69 (2010) pp. 123–147.
890
Ostrowski, Muscovy and the Mongols pp. 73, 81.
891
JB II p. 52; Boyle, Successors pp. 159, 168, 197, 199–200; Budge, Chronography p. 412; Morris Rossabi, 'Kublai Khan and the Women in his Family,' in Bauer, Studia Sino-Mongolica pp. 153–180 (at pp. 158–166); Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 26; Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck p. 125; Pelliot, 'Le vrai nom de "Seroctan",' T'oung Pao 29 (1932) pp. 43–54.
892
Õóëàãó-õàí — èëüõàí, ïðàâèòåëü ñîçäàííîãî èì ãîñóäàðñòâà Õóëàãóèäîâ, âêëþ÷àâøåãî Èðàí, áîëüøóþ ÷àñòü ñîâðåìåííîé òåððèòîðèè Àôãàíèñòàíà, Òóðêìåíèè, Çàêàâêàçüÿ, Èðàêà, âîñòî÷íóþ ÷àñòü Ìàëîé Àçèè. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
893
Ratchnevsky, 'La condition de la femme mongole," loc. cit. pp. 517–518, 522.
894
Ó àâòîðà — Orgina. Äðóãîå íàïèñàíèå â ðóññêîÿçû÷íûõ èñòî÷íèêàõ — Óðãàíà-õàòóí. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
895
Zhao, Marriage p. 29; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 487–491.
896
JR II p. 1144; JB I pp. 245–246; Boyle, Successors pp. 176, 242; Budge, Chronography p. 412.
897
See Lane, Daily Life pp. 239–254 for all details on these. Cf also Rossabi, 'Kublai Khan and the Women," loc. cit; George Qingzhi Zhao & Richard W. L. Grisso, 'Female Anxiety and Female Power: Political Intervention by Mongol Empresses during the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries," Toronto Studies in Central Asia 7 (2005) pp. 17–46; Weatherford, Secret History of the Mongol Queens.
898
Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 491. For the 1196 campaign see Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 199–203.
899
See Lewis, China's Cosmopolitan Empire.
900
Brook, Troubled Empire pp. 26, 65, 80, 82, 260.
901
'The conquest of China was not a primary goal of the Mongols but, ironically, simply a consequence of their having completely destroyed the Jurchen Chin regime which they had planned to extort' (Barfield, Perilous Frontier p. 197).
902
Lattimore, 'The Geography of Chingis Khan," Geographical Journal 129 (1963) pp. 1–7; S. Bira, 'The Mongolian Conception of Chinggis Khan: Historic and Mythical Hero," Mongolica 3 (1992) pp. 32–47.
903
Barfield, Perilous Frontier pp. 49–51, 91–94, 150–151.
904
Larry V Clark, 'The Theme of Revenge," in Clark & Draghi, Aspects II pp. 37–57; Lien-sheng Yang, 'Hostages in Chinese History," in Yang, Studies pp. 43–57.
905
SHC p. 186.
906
Joseph Fletcher, 'The Mongols: Ecological and Social Perspectives," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 46 (1986) pp. 11–50 (at pp. 32–33); Grenard, Genghis pp. 111–112; H. Franke, From Tribal Chieftain pp. 17–18; Sechin Jachid, 'Traditional Mongol Attitudes and Values as Seen in the Secret History of the Mongols and the Altan Tobchi,' in Jagchid, Essays pp. 51–66.
907
Barthold, Turkestan pp. 393–396; Vladimirtsov, Genghis pp. 76–77.
908
Fletcher, 'The Mongols," loc. cit. pp. 32–33; Barfield, 'Inner Asia and the Cycles of Power in China's Imperial History," in Seaman and Marks, Rulers from the Steppe pp. 21–62 (at p. 25).
909
J. P. Marques, 'Sur la nature du nomadisme des steppes eurasiatiques," L'Homme 108 (1988) pp. 84–98.
910
«Äàòñêèå äåíüãè» — â X–XII âåêàõ åæåãîäíûé íàëîã â Àíãëèè äëÿ óïëàòû äàíè ñêàíäèíàâñêèì âèêèíãàì. — Ïðèì. àâò.
911
Denis Sinor, 'The Greed of the Northern Barbarians," in Clark & Draghi, Aspects pp. 171–182.
912
Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom p. 177.
913
Khazanov, Nomads and the Outside World pp. 235–236; Khazanov, 'Ecological Limitations of Nomadism in the Eurasian Steppes and their Social and Cultural Implications," Asian and African Studies 24 (1990) pp. 1–15.
914
Fletcher, 'The Mongols," loc. cit. p. 15.
915
Barfield, Perilous Frontier pp. 164–186.
916
Using the famous bifurcation suggested by Claude Levi-Strauss, one scholar has differentiated between the 'raw' barbarians of Outer Mongolia and the 'cooked' tribes within the shadow of the Great Wall (Magnus Fiskesjo, 'On the "Raw" and "Cooked" Barbarians of Imperial China,' Inner Asia t (1999) pp. 139–168).
917
Paul D. Buell, 'The Role of the Sino-Mongolian Frontier Zone in the Rise of Chingis Qan,' in Schwarz, Studies on Mongolia pp. 63–76 (esp. pp. 63–68).
918
For the preliao history of the Khitans see Xu, Historical Development, esp. pp. 237–258; Herbert Franke, 'The Forest Peoples of Manchuria: Khitans andjurchens,' in Sinor, Cambridge History pp. 400–423; Barfield, Perilous Frontier pp. 168–173.
919
Ó àâòîðà — A-Pao-Chi, Àáàîöçè, â «Áðèòàíñêîé ýíöèêëîïåäèè» — Abaoju, íà êèòàéñêîì ÿçûêå — Òçéçó Ëÿî, íà ìîíãîëüñêîì — Åëþé. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
920
For the emperors who succeeded A-Pao-Chi, of whom the most distinguished and long-lived was Sheng-Tsun (982–1031) see Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History pp. 56–123; Moule, Rulers of China pp. 91–95.
921
For the foundation of the Tangut state see Dunnell, Great State p. 3.
922
Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I pp. 216–229; Barfield, Perilous Frontier p. 174.
923
Tao, Two Sons passim; Di Cosmo & Wyatt, Political Frontiers pp. 192–219; Standen & Powers, Frontiers in Question.
924
Wittfogel & Feng, Liao p. 554.
925
Gernet, Chinese Civilization p. 354.
926
Mote, Imperial China pp. 200–202.
927
Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I pp. 376–390; P. Huang, 'New Light on the Origin of the Manchus,' Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 50 (1990) pp. 239–282.
928
Tao, Jurchen pp. 21–22.
929
Barfield, Perilous Frontier p. 179.
930
Barfield, Perilous Frontier p. 179.
931
Respectively, Barfield, ibid. p. 179 and Mote, Imperial China p. 211. Nevertheless, one can argue that the Liao must have ignored many warning signs. Their armies had been heavily defeated by the Jurchens in 1026 when they had provoked the tribes of Manchuria by a plundering raid (Wittfogel & Feng, Liao p. 588).
932
Mote, Imperial China pp. 195–197.
933
Mote, Imperial China pp. 203–214; Grousset, Empire p. 137.
934
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 279; Mote, Imperial China pp. 223–224.
935
Sechin Jagchid, 'Khitan Struggles against Jurchen Oppression: Nomadization versus Sinicization,' Zentralasiatische Studien 16 (1982) pp. 165–185.
936
Wittfogel & Feng, Liao p. 634.
937
The zigzag course in and out of sinicisation pursued by the Jin is traced in Mote, Imperial China pp. 226–243; Hok Lam Chan, Legitimation in Imperial China. Discussions under the Jurchen-Chin dynasty, 1115–1234 (1984) pp. 55–72, 116. See also Jung-Chen Tao, Jurchen in Twelfth-Century China.
938
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History pp. 315–319; Tao, Jurchen pp. 41–44.
939
Mote, Imperial China p. 237.
940
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History pp. 205–206.
941
Sechin Jagchid, 'Patterns of Trade and Conflict between China and the Nomads of Mongolia,' in Jagchid, Essays pp. 3–20; Jagchid & Symons, Peace, War and Trade.
942
Sechin Jagchid, 'The Historical Interaction between Nomadic People in Mongolia and the Sedentary Chinese,' in Seaman & Marks, Rulers from the Steppe pp. 63–91.
943
For the Jin-Song wars see Lorge, War, Politics and Society pp. 53–56; Mote, Imperial China pp. 207–209, 299–304; Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History pp. 235–249.
944
Mote, Imperial China pp. 287, 394.
945
Chou, Economic History pp. 102–104. For the world systems approach see McNeill, In Pursuit of Power.
946
Tao, Jurchen pp. 108–109.
947
Mote, Imperial China p. 266. The entire subject of the population of medieval China is, not surprisingly, disputed territory. Martin, Rise of Chingis Khan p. 125 gives a a figure of 48,490,000 for the Jin but argues that the population must have been much larger, as the census figures do not include the very poor or the many tax evaders.
948
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History pp. 302, 313–315.
949
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 302.
950
Tao, Jurchen pp. 90–91.
951
Wittfogel & Feng, Liao pp. 553, 669.
952
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History pp. 294–298.
953
Needham, Science and Civilization I p. 68.
954
Tregear, Geography of China pp. 218–219.
955
Elvin & Cuirong, Sediments of Time pp. 554–560; Lorge, War, Politics and Society p. 147.
956
Grousset, Rise and Splendour p. 303; Martin, Rise of Chingis pp. 125–126.
957
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History pp. 245–249.
958
Brook, Troubled Empire pp. 26, 65, 80, 82, 260.
959
Âîçìîæíî, Õàíü Äîâåé, êîòîðîãî ïî ïðèêàçó èìïåðàòîðà Íèí-öçóíà êàçíèëè, à ãîëîâó, ïîêðûòóþ ëàêîì, â øêàòóëêå îòïðàâèëè ÷æóð÷æýíÿì. — Ïðèì. àâò.
960
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History pp. 245–249.
961
Buell, Dictionary pp. 24, 172–175.
962
Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 113.
963
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan pp. 106, 250–251.
964
Rachewiltz, 'Personnel and Personalities in North China in the Early Mongol Period,' Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 9 (1966) pp. 88–144 (at p. 98).
965
Lattimore, Mongol Journeys pp. 128–129.
966
Pelliot, 'Chretiens d'Asie centrale et d'Extreme-Orient,' T'oung Pao 15 (1914) pp. 623–644 (at p. 631); Halbertsma, Early Christian Remains pp. 150–157.
967
Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 181–182.
968
Martin, Rise of Chingis pp. 114–115.
969
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 122.
970
Martin, Rise pp. 120–121.
971
Lattimore, 'The Geography of Genghis Khan,' Geographical Journal 129 (1963) pp. 1–7.
972
Mote, Imperial China pp. 284–288.
973
Bartold, Turkestan pp. 393–396; Vladimirtsov, Genghis pp. 76–77.
974
Thomas Allsen, 'The Yuan Dynasty and the Uighurs of Turfan,' loc. cit. pp. 243–280.
975
H. D. Martin, 'Chingis Khan's First Invasion of the Chin Empire,' Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1943) pp. 182–216 (esp. pp. 190–192).
976
Lattimore, Mongol Journeys p. 126.
977
Lattimore, Mongol Journeys p. 126.
978
On this point Genghis has at least one modern supporter. Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom (p. 175) compares the genocide attempted by the Jin in those years to the slaughter of Indians by the Puritans of New England in the seventeenth century and of the Patagonian Indians by the Argentine government in the late nineteenth.
979
Martin, Rise pp. 101, 149.
980
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 128.
981
JR II p. 954.
982
Gaubil, Gentchiscan p. 16.
983
Mongol numbers are always disputed. The population of medieval Mongolia has been estimated as anything from 700,000 to two million (I incline to the latter figure). If we assume a rough-and-ready one-in-ten figure for military mobilisation that would provide purely Mongol armies of between 70,000 and 200,000.
984
For a modern analysis of the resources of the Gobi see Hedley, Tramps pp. 92, 239.
985
Rachewiltz, In the Service pp. 3–4.
986
Pelliot, 'Chretiens d'Asie centrale,' loc. cit. pp. 623–624; Saeki, Nestorian Documents pp. 423–427; d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 129.
987
Martin, Rise p. 133.
988
For the geography of this area see Lattimore, Inner Asian Frontiers pp. 21–25.
989
Van Oost, Au pays des Ortos.
990
Arthur Waldron, 'The Problem of the Great Wall of China,' Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 43 (1983) pp. 643–663; Buell, Dictionary p. 171; Herrmann, Historical Atlas p. 39; Haw, Marco Polo's China pp. 52–54; Pletcher, Geography of China p. 95; Waldron, Great Wall; Lovell, Great Wall; Rojas, Great Wall; Man, Great Wall.
991
Martin, Rise p. 134.
992
Lattimore, Inner Asian Frontiers pp. 543–546.
993
Martin, Rise pp. 133–134.
994
Martin, Rise pp. 135–136.
995
Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 890.
996
×àùå âñòðå÷àåòñÿ äðóãîå èìÿ — Õóøàõó. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
997
Wittfogel & Feng, Liao p. 521.
998
RT I pp. 216–217.
999
Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 4.
1000
JR II pp. 956–957.
1001
Krause, Cingis Han p. 30.
1002
Martin, Rise pp. 141–142, 336–337.
1003
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist pp. 62–63.
1004
RT I p. 217.
1005
Martin, Rise pp. 142–143; d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 131.
1006
Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 891.
1007
SHO p. 234; SHR p. 175; Martin, Rise p. 143.
1008
May, Mongol Conquests p. 225. For the similarity (but not identity) of these Chinese horses to the Mongol ones see Hyland, Medieval Warhorse pp. 126–127; Herrlee G. Creel, 'The Role of the Horse in Chinese History' American Historical Review 70 (1965) pp. 647–662; S. Jagchid & C. R. Bawden, 'Some Notes on the Horse Policy of the Yuan Dynasty,' Central Asiatic Journal 10 (1965) pp. 246–268.
1009
Martin, Rise p. 144.
1010
Harlez, Histoire de I'empire de Kin pp. 208–209.
1011
Olbricht & Pinks, Meng-ta pei-lu p. 61.
1012
Olbricht & Pinks, Meng-ta pei-lu pp. 58, 187.
1013
For Subedei's exploits in 1211–12 see Gabriel, Subotai p. 17.
1014
Grousset, Empire pp. 228–229.
1015
RT I pp. 215–216.
1016
Krause, Cingis Han p. 74.
1017
SHO p. 234; SHR p. 175.
1018
Martin, Rise pp. 146–147.
1019
There are good descriptions of the geography of Shaanxi in Millward, Beyond the Pass.
1020
Martin, Rise pp. 149–150.
1021
Martin, Rise p. 150.
1022
Buell, Dictionary pp. 28–29, 2.89.
1023
Mark C. Elliott, 'The Limits of Tartary: Manchuria in Imperial and National Geographies,' Journal of Asian Studies 59 (2000) pp. 603–646; Parker, A Thousand Years pp. 249–250.
1024
Carl Sverdrup, 'Numbers in Mongol Warfare,' Journal of Medieval History 8 (2010) pp. 109–117 (at pp. 115–116).
1025
Lattimore, Inner Asian Frontiers p. 113.
1026
Krause, Cingis Han pp. 30–31; Martin, Rise pp. 197–198.
1027
JR II p. 958: Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches, I p. 125; Gaubil, Gentchiscan p. 37.
1028
JR II p. 958.
1029
d'Ohsson, Histoire, I p. 133.
1030
Krause, Cingis Han pp. 30–31.
1031
Martin, Rise p. 157.
1032
JR II p. 958; Martin, Rise p. 159.
1033
Martin, Rise p. 160.
1034
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 140.
1035
Frangoise Aubin, 'The Rebirth of Chinese Rule in Times of Trouble,' in Schram, Foundations and Limitations pp. 113–146 (at p. 134).
1036
Mote, Imperial China p. 244.
1037
Martin, Rise pp. 160–161.
1038
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 137.
1039
Martin, Rise pp. 162–163.
1040
Martin, Rise pp. 162–163.
1041
Krause, Cingis Han pp. 30–32; Boyle, Successors pp. 145–146,165.
1042
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 140–141.
1043
Du Halde, Description iv pp. 15–16; Edmonds, Northern Frontiers pp. 115–117.
1044
Krause, Cingis Han pp. 32, 78.
1045
×àñòü íàñëåäñòâåííûõ çåìåëüíûõ âëàäåíèé èëè äåíåæíîãî ñîäåðæàíèÿ. — Ïðèì. ðåä.
1046
Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I pp. 8–9; Boyle, Successors p. 65.
1047
Gibert, Dictionnaire historique pp. 668–669.
1048
Judges 15: 4.
1049
Gibert, Dictionnaire historique p. 481.
1050
Krause, Cingis Han pp. 32, 78.
1051
Cheng-Ching no longer exists as a city but seems to have been in the vicinity of modern Jinan — for which see Elvin & Skinner, Chinese City pp. 171–172.
1052
Òàêæå Ôûíü èëè Ôûíüõý (Fen). — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1053
RT I p. 219; Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I p. 7. For more detailed studies of the campaign of the princes see ibid, I pp. 803, 842; II p. 736; Boyle, Successors pp. 145–146.
1054
Krause, Cingis Han p. 72.
1055
Martin, Rise p. 165.
1056
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 140–141.
1057
Ramsey, Languages of China pp. 19–26; Lee, Warp and Weft pp. 39–40.
1058
Herbert Franke, 'Siege and Defense of Towns in Medieval China,' in Kiernan & Fairbank, Chinese Ways in Warfare pp. 159–195; Sen Dou Chang, 'The Morphology of Walled Capitals,' in Skinner, City in Late Imperial China pp. 75–100.
1059
Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo II pp. 802, 842.
1060
Martin, Rise p. 166.
1061
For fuller details of Genghis's great sweep see RT I pp. 218–219; Krause, Cingis Han pp. 31, 35, 71, 74, 75; Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo II p. 736; d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 141–142.
1062
Ìåæäó Ëÿîäóíñêèì è Çàïàäíî-Êîðåéñêèì çàëèâàìè Æåëòîãî ìîðÿ. — Ïðèì. àâò.
1063
Òàêæå Âóøàíü. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1064
Hildinger, Warriors of the Steppe p. 124. See also Giles, Chinese Biographical Dictionary.
1065
Janhunen, Manchuria pp. 3–8; Edmonds, Northern Frontiers of Qing China op. cit. pp. 138–140.
1066
Lattimore, Mongols of Manchuria pp. 44–46.
1067
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 159.
1068
Gibert, Dictionnaire historique p. 481; Lattimore, Mongols of Manchuria p. 193.
1069
Abel-Remusat, Nouveaux melanges II p. 64.
1070
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 142.
1071
Martin, Rise p. 169.
1072
Martin, Rise p. 170.
1073
Franke, Geschichte iv p. 272; Franke Twitchett, Cambridge History pp. 250–267.
1074
SHO p. 236; SHR pp. 176–177; Krause, Cingis Han pp. 32–33.
1075
Elisabetta Chiodo, 'Praising Cinggis Qayan and His Campaigns,' Ural-Altaische Jahrbiicher 17 (2002) pp. 189–233.
1076
Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo II p. 789.
1077
RT II p. 222.
1078
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 143–144.
1079
Needham, Science and Civilization op. cit. I p. 68.
1080
Krause, Cingis Han p. 33.
1081
Rachewiltz, 'Muqali, Bol, Tas and An-t'ung,' Papers in Far Eastern History 15 (1977) pp. 45–62 (at p. 49).
1082
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 258.
1083
Martin, Rise p. 169.
1084
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan pp. 113–115; Susan Naquin, Peking.
1085
Li, Dray-Novey & Kong, Beijing p. 13; Phillips, Mongols p. 56. Han, Population and Geography of Beijing scales these figures down considerably.
1086
Gabriel, Great Armies p. 38; McGraw, Encyclopedia pp. 103–104.
1087
Bethan V. Purse et al, 'Climate Change and the Recent Emergence of Bluetongue in Europe,' Nature Reviews Microbiology 3 (2005) ðð. 171–181; Mellor et al, Bluetongue; Robertson, Handbook of Animal Diseases.
1088
Anastasius van den Wyngaert, 'Itinera et Relationes Fratrum Minorum saeculi XIII et XIV' Sinica Franciscana 1 (192.9) pp. 47–48, 56; Rockhill, William of Rubruck p. 64; Matthew Paris, Chroniea Majora iv p. 386; Robert des Rotours, 'Quelques notes sur l'anthropophagie en Chine,' T'oung Pao 1963 pp. 386–427; Risch, Geschichte der Mongolen; Wittfogel & Feng, Liao p. 425.
1089
RT I p. 223.
1090
Krause, Cingis Han p. 33.
1091
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 146–147.
1092
Martin, Rise p. 177.
1093
Krause, Cingis Han p. 34; Hambis, Genghis p. 103.
1094
Chase, Firearms p. 58; Jaques, Battles and Sieges I p. 123; Walter J. Fabrychy & Paul E. Jorgesen, Operations Economy p. 254; Lissner, Living Past p. 193.
1095
Martin, Rise p. 178.
1096
JR II p. 965.
1097
Barthold, Turkestan pp. 393–394. See also Boyle, Cambridge History of Iran v pp. 303–304.
1098
Ping-ti Ho, 'An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China,' Etudes Song 1 (1970) pp. 32–53; Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 622; Koln, Dictionary of Wars p. 206.
1099
Needham, Science and Civilization I p. 139.
1100
ibid, iv part 3 pp. 269–272, 307–309, 313, 350–352.
1101
Gernet, Daily Life p. 15; Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony p. 337.
1102
Temple, Genius of China pp. 218–219.
1103
Brook, Confasions of Pleasure pp. 46–49.
1104
Krause, Cingis Han pp. 34–35.
1105
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist pp. 33–34.
1106
JR II p. 954.
1107
Abel-Remusat, Nouveaux melanges II p. 64.
1108
 ðóññêîì òåêñòå «Ñêàçàíèÿ» ýòîò ýïèçîä èçëàãàåòñÿ èíà÷å (§ 252). — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1109
RT I p. 224; SHO pp. 239–240; SHR pp. 179–180; d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 148; Rachewiltz, In the Service pp. 80–82; Ratchnevsky, 'Sigi Qutuqu, ein mongolischer Gefolgsmann im 12–13 Jahrhundert,' Central Asiatic Journal 10 (1965) pp. 87–120 (at pp. 98–103); Buell, Dictionary pp. 243–244.
1110
Lee, Economic History pp. 325–326.
1111
This became the jacquerie of the Red Coats or Red Jackets, sometimes hailed as primitive rebels or the first of the peasant revolutionaries — though most sober historians think this anachronistic and assert that the Red Coats were simply bands of condottieri. Frangoise Aubin, 'The Rebirth of Chinese Rule in Times of Trouble: China in the Early Thirteenth Century,' in Schram, Foundations and Limits pp. 113–146.
1112
Martin, Rise p. 181. The Secret History becomes very confused at this point, as it has 'Red Caps' fighting for the Jin (SHO p. 238; SHR pp. 178–179). The Jin actually used a force known as the 'Multicoloured Caps' as an anti- Red Cap force (Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 912–913).
1113
Vernadsky, Mongols and Russia pp. 33–34.
1114
Martin, Rise p. 182.
1115
Martin, Rise p. 187.
1116
Martin, Rise p. 184.
1117
This was an almost exact repeat of the rout they had suffered here under the Prince of Hailing in 1161 (Ruth Mostern, 'From Battlefields to Counties: War, Border and State Power in Southern Song Huainan,' in Wyatt, Battlefields pp. 227–252 (at p. 241); Needham, Science and Civilization I p. 134; Tilman & West, China under Jurchen Rule p. 29).
1118
Martin, Rise p. 185.
1119
Martin, Rise p. 185.
1120
Lary, Chinese Migration p. 49.
1121
Henthorn, Korea p. 5.
1122
Gaubil, Gentchiscan p. 26.
1123
Martin, Rise p. 202.
1124
Martin, Rise p. 202.
1125
Martin, Rise p. 203.
1126
Parker, Thousand Years pp. 249–250.
1127
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan pp. 114–115.
1128
For Muqali's intelligence see Buell, Dictionary pp. 199, 261; Grousset, Empire p. 206.
1129
Martin, Rise p. 211.
1130
Martin, Rise p. 211–213.
1131
Krause, Cingis Han pp. 34–35.
1132
RT I p. 246.
1133
Martin, Rise p. 214.
1134
Martin, Rise p. 215.
1135
Henthorne, Korea p. 6.
1136
His relationship with the Mongols was singular. In 1217, when Muqali was elsewhere, he revolted again and fled to an island when the Mongols invaded the Liao valley and Liaodong. He then moved to the Tumen River basin to avoid both Jin and Mongols and set himself up as a petty princeling of a domain he called Dongxia. Once established, he resubmitted to the Mongols, and provided them with invaluable information about the internal affairs of Korea (Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History pp. 258–259).
1137
RT I pp. 98–99; SHO p. 239; SHR pp. 178–179.
1138
Hartog, Genghis p. 71.
1139
Lattimore, Inner Asian Frontiers pp. 21–25.
1140
Erdmann, Temudschin p. 328; Buell, Dictionary p. 236.
1141
Krause, Cingis Han p. 86.
1142
RT I p. 225.
1143
Olbricht & Pinks, Meng-ta pei-lu p. 187.
1144
Martin, Rise p. 189.
1145
Martin, Rise p. 190.
1146
Martin, Rise p. 191.
1147
Martin, Rise p. 191.
1148
Franke, Geschichte IV pp. 266–274.
1149
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 161–162.
1150
Vladimirtsov, Genghis pp. 78–83.
1151
Rachewiltz, In the Service pp. 116–117.
1152
Dunnell, Great State p. xxv; Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations iv part 1 pp. 191–214.
1153
Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 6.
1154
Rachewiltz, 'Muqali, Bol, Tas and An-t'ung,' loc. cit. p. 50.
1155
Martin, Rise p. 244.
1156
Robinson, Empire's Twilight p. 302; d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 357; Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 358.
1157
Òàêæå ×æàí-æåó â ñáîðíèêå: Èñòîðèÿ ìîíãîëîâ. Ì.: ÀÑÒ, 2008. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1158
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 358–359; Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 47; Lien-Sheng Yang, 'Hostages in Chinese History,' Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 15 (1952) pp. 507–521.
1159
Rachewiltz, In the Service pp. 48–49. The duel recalls that between the Prince de Conde and the Vicomte de Turenne in the seventeenth century.
1160
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 358.
1161
Martin, Rise pp. 250–251.
1162
RT I p. 227.
1163
Allsen, Commodity and Exchange pp. 76–78.
1164
Robinson, Empire's Twilight pp. 308–309.
1165
Rachewiltz, 'Personnel and Personalities in North China in the Early Mongol Period,' Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 9 (1996) pp. 88–144 (esp. pp. 128–132).
1166
Áàðùèíà (ôð.).
1167
Tao-chung Yao, 'Chi'u Ch'u-chi and Chinggis Khan,' Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 46 (1986) pp. 201–219.
1168
Franke & Twichett, Cambridge History p. 362; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 360–372.
1169
Ïåðåâîðîò (ôð.).
1170
Henthorn, Korea pp. 5–6, 22; Michael C. Rogers, 'Koryo's Military Dictatorship and its relationship with Kin,' T'oung Pao 47 (1949) pp. 43–62.
1171
Michael C. Rogers, 'Factionalism and Koryo Policy under the Northern Song,' Journal of the American Oriental Society 79 pp. 16–25.
1172
Lee, New History pp. 343–350.
1173
Henthorn, Korea pp. 18–22.
1174
Robinson, Empire's Twilight pp. 7–9, 57.
1175
Robinson, Empire's Twilight pp. 53, 265.
1176
Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I p. 307; Gari Ledyard, 'Yin and Yang in the China-Manchuria-Korea Triangle,' in Rossabi, China among Equals pp. 313–353; Ledyard, Early Koryo-Mongol Relations.
1177
Henthorn, Korea pp. 27–29; Gari Ledyard, 'The Mongol Campaigns in Korea and the Dating of the Secret History of the Mongols,' Central Asiatic Journal' 9 (1964) pp. 1–22; Atwood, Encyclopedia p. 319.
1178
Charles A. Peterson, 'Old Illusions and New Realities: Sung Foreign Policy, 1217–1234,' in Rossabi, China among Equals pp. 204–239.
1179
Çëîðàäñòâà (íåì.).
1180
Charles A. Peterson, 'Old Illusions and New Realities: Sung Foreign Policy, 1217–1234,' in Rossabi, China among Equals p. 205. For the disasters of 1206–1208 and the Sung war with the Jin see Hana, Der Stadt Òean pp. 21–65.
1181
Needham, Science and Civilization I pp. 134–139; Gernet, Daily Life pp. 17–18; Twitchett, Printing and Publishing.
1182
Yuan-kang Wang, 'Explaining the Tribute System: Power, Confucianism and War in Medieval East Asia," Journal of East Asian Studies 13 (2013) pp. 207–232.
1183
Franchise Aubin, 'Li Chi'an,' in Franke, Sung Biographies II pp. 542–546.
1184
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist p. 48; Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 359.
1185
Martin, Rise pp. 258–259.
1186
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 363.
1187
Krause, Cingis Han pp. 35–36.
1188
Rachewiltz, In the Service pp. 62–64.
1189
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 360–361.
1190
Rachewiltz, 'Muqali, Bol,' loc. cit. pp. 51–52.
1191
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 25–34; Krause, Cingis Han p. 37.
1192
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles p. 89.
1193
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles p. 89–90.
1194
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 359; Martin, Rise pp. 264–265.
1195
Pelliot, 'Notes sur le "Turkestan",' loc. cit. pp. 13–14.
1196
Grousset, Conquerant p. 348.
1197
Peterson, 'Old Illusions,' loc. cit. pp. 208, 210.
1198
For Chao Fang see Franke, Geschichte iv p. 273; Franke, Sung Biographies I pp. 54–56.
1199
Charles A. Peterson, 'First Sung Reactions to the Mongol Invasions of the North, 1211–1217,' in Haeger, Crisis and Prosperity pp. 215–252 (at pp. 247–248).
1200
Peterson, 'Old Illusions,' loc. cit. pp. 213–214, 219–220.
1201
Lo, Yeh Shih pp. 105–107; Peterson, 'Old Illusions,' pp. 215–217.
1202
Herbert Franke, 'Sung Embassies: Some General Observations,' in Rossabi, China among Equals pp. 116–137 (at p. 136).
1203
Herbert Franke, 'Sung Embassies: Some General Observations,' in Rossabi, China among Equals pp. 116–137 (at p. 136).
1204
Rachewiltz, 'Muqali, Bol,' loc. cit. pp. 52–53.
1205
Martin, Rise pp. 264–265.
1206
Martin, Rise pp. 265–266.
1207
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 365.
1208
Martin, Rise p. 267.
1209
Martin, Rise p. 269.
1210
RT II p. 299.
1211
Krause, Cingis Han p. 38; d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 366.
1212
Martin, Rise p. 270.
1213
Martin, Rise p. 271.
1214
Franke & Twichett, Cambridge History p. 360.
1215
Martin, Rise p. 272.
1216
Krause, Cingis Han p. 38.
1217
Rachewiltz, 'Muqali, Bol,' loc. cit. p. 54; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes p. 371.
1218
Peterson, 'Old Illusions,' loc. cit. p. 209.
1219
Goodrich, Short History p. 173.
1220
Luc Kwanten, 'The Career of Muqali: A Reassessment,' Bulletin of Sung and Yuan Studies 14 (1973) pp. 31–38. The only distant comparison — though they do not rate so highly — are the American Civil War trio of Grant, Sherman and Sheridan.
1221
Henthorn, Korea pp. ix, 27–29, 195.
1222
Martin, Rise p. 276.
1223
Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 64.
1224
Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 64.
1225
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 360.
1226
Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 64.
1227
Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 29.
1228
Martin, Rise p. 277.
1229
Martin, Rise pp. 278–279.
1230
Martin, Rise p. 280.
1231
Martin, Rise pp. 280–281.
1232
Chi, Key Economic Areas pp. 106–107, 140.
1233
Franke, Geschichte iv p. 285.
1234
Peterson, 'Old Illusions,' loc. cit. p. 221.
1235
Saunders, Mongol Conquests pp. 196–202.
1236
Pletcher, History of China pp. 172–173.
1237
Needham, Science and Civilization v part 6 p. 135. For a detailed discussion see Payne-Gallwey, Crossbow.
1238
For the Khitan influence see P. Buell, 'Sino-Khitan Administration in Mongol Bukhara,' Journal of Asian History 13 (1979) pp. 121–151; Silverstein, Postal Systems p. 142.
1239
Hardy's poem of course refers to the fated collision of the Titanic and the iceberg. It was the collision of Khwarezmia and Qara Khitai that introduced Fate in the shape of Genghis and, as such, can be seen to have the same kind of inevitability.
1240
Wittfogel & Feng, Liao.
1241
For a full account of the career of Yelu Dashi see Biran, Qara Khitai pp. 19–40.
1242
Denis Sinor, 'The Khitans and the Kara Khitans,' in Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations iv part 1 pp. 227–242 (at p. 235).
1243
Biran, Qara Khitai pp. 103, 107–108.
1244
RT I pp. 228–231; JB I pp. 62–64.
1245
JB I p. 64; II pp. 351, 394, 396.
1246
JB II pp. 360–361.
1247
Barthold, Turkestan p. 367.
1248
Wittfogel & Feng, Liao p. 668.
1249
Wittfogel & Feng, Liao p. 652; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 358, 362, 367.
1250
JB I pp. 346, 349, 359–3á0.
1251
Biran, Qara Khitai p. 78.
1252
JB I pp. 361, 395; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 365–366; Barthold, Histoire des turcs pp. 109–111.
1253
Sinor, 'Western Information on the Khitans and Some Related Questions,' Journal of the American Oriental Society 115 (1995) pp. 262–269.
1254
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist pp. 88–89.
1255
Barthold, Turkestan pp. 382–384.
1256
Äëÿ óñòðàøåíèÿ (ëàò.).
1257
JB II p. 395; Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations iv part 1 pp. 134–136; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 365–366.
1258
Christian, History of Russia I p. 379.
1259
Barthold, Four Studies I p. 395; Barthold, Turkestan p. 364; Hartmann, An-Nasir li-Din Allah p. 80.
1260
Herodotus (1.203) knew that the Caspian was an inland sea but the contrary views of Pliny the Elder, Natural History (6.15.36–37) and Strabo, Geography (2.5.14) proved tenacious. For the Caspian in the Mongol era see Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I pp. 61–62; Pelliot, Recherches pp. 104–106.
1261
JB I p. 65.
1262
Wittfogel & Feng, Liao p. 653.
1263
Barthold, Turkestan ðð. 363, 366, 368.
1264
JB I pp. 65–68, 70–73, 75; Biran, Qara Khitai pp. 180–191, 194–196.
1265
JB I pp. 65, 75.
1266
JB II p. 396.
1267
Biran, Qara Khitai pp. 81–82.
1268
For this part of Muhammad's career see Barthold, Turkestan pp. 322–351; cf also Grousset, Empire p. 169.
1269
Biran, Qara Khitai p. 65.
1270
Barthold, Turkestan p. 401.
1271
JB I pp. 75–76.
1272
Biran, Qara Khitai p. 83; Turkestan p. 402; Pelliot, 'Notes sur le "Turkestan",' loc. cit. p. 55.
1273
Biran, Qara Khitai pp. 80–81.
1274
Thomas T. Allsen, "'Ever Closer Encounters": The Appropriation of Culture and the Apportionment of Peoples in the Mongol Empire,' Journal of Early Modem History I (1997) pp. 2–25; Peter B. Golden, '"I Will Give the People Unto Thee": The Chingissid Conquests and their Aftermath in the Turkic World, 'Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 3rd series 10 (2000) pp. 21–41; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 298.
1275
JB I pp. 67–68.
1276
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 233; d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 172; Spuler, Muslim World II p. 89.
1277
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 301–304; II pp. 39–41, 68–73; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 109–116.
1278
JB p. 67; Biran, Qara Khitai pp. 195–196.
1279
SHO p. 221; SHR p. 163; Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 845. Other locations through which Jebe passed, according to Chinese sources, were T'ien Shan, Issyk Kul, the Bebel Pass, Uch-Turfan and Aksu (Martin, Rise p. 231).
1280
JB I pp. 69–70; II pp. 370–383.
1281
JB I p. 68; Barthold, Turkestan p. 403.
1282
JB II pp. 347, 357; Biran, Qara Khitai p. 171.
1283
There is a very good account of the Irghiz River in Schuyler, Turkistan p. 16.
1284
JB II p. 371.
1285
RT I pp. 235–236; JR I pp. 269–270.
1286
JB II pp. 371–373; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 369–372.
1287
Nesawi [Nasawi], Djelal ed-Din Mankobirti pp. 19–20; Grenard, Genghis p. 140.
1288
JB I pp. 303–304; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 393–394.
1289
JR II p. 966.
1290
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 205.
1291
JB I p. 304.
1292
Barthold, Turkestan pp. 396–397.
1293
Barthold, Turkestan pp. 396–397.
1294
JR I p. 270.
1295
JB II pp. 390–391; Hartmann, An-Nasir pp. 83–84; Spuler, Muslim World II p. 8.
1296
Hartmann, An-Nasir p. 82; Barthold, Four Studies I p. 88.
1297
Thomas T. Allsen, 'Mongolian Princes and their Merchant Partners, 1200–1260, Asia Minor, 3rd series 2 (1989) pp. 83–126 (at p. 91).
1298
Minorsky, Sharaf al Zaman Tahir Marzavi (1942) pp. 14–15; Hourani, Arab Peoples p. 112.
1299
JB I pp. 77–78; Lech, Mongolische Weltreich p. 19; Barthold, Four Studies I p. 71; Vladimirtsov, Genghis p. 93.
1300
Biran, Qara Khitai p. 138.
1301
Eisma, Chinggis Qan pp. 78–79; d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 205–206.
1302
Togan, Flexibility and Limitation p. 57.
1303
Vernadsky, Mongols and Russia p. 117.
1304
JR II p. 967.
1305
The Otrar incident is well documented and comprehensively commented on in RT I p. 234; JB I pp. 79–80, 304–305, 367; IAA III pp. 204–205; JR I p. 271; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 398–399; Pelliot, 'Notes sur le "Turkestan",' loc. cit. pp. 52–53.
1306
JR II p. 967; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 277; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 397–399.
1307
JR II p. 1141.
1308
IAA III pp. 205–206.
1309
IAA III p. 206.
1310
IAA III p. 206.
1311
These issues relate to the classic theories of strategy set out in Liddell Hart, Strategy. See also Bond, Basil Liddell Hart; Alex Danchev, 'Liddell Hart and the Indirect Approach,' Journal of Military History 63 (1999) pp. 313–337.
1312
Clausewitz, On War.
1313
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 124.
1314
×óâñòâî îáùíîñòè èíòåðåñîâ, òîâàðèùåñòâî (ôð.).
1315
Bregel, Firdaws al-Iqbal; D. N. Mackenzie, 'Khwarezmian Language and Literature,' in Yarshater, ed., Cambridge History of Iran (1983) III part 2 pp. 1244–1249.
1316
Christian, History of Russia I p. 379; Barthold, Turkestan p. 377.
1317
JR I p. 240; Wittfogel & Feng, Liao p. 431; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 89–91.
1318
JB II p. 466; Spuler, History of the Mongols p. 32.
1319
Eisma, Chinggis Khan p. 84.
1320
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan pp. 124, 129–130.
1321
Bahn, World Archaeology pp. 134–135; Gunnar Jarring, 'The Toponym Takla-makan,' Turkic Languages 1 (1997) ðð. 227–240.
1322
Barthold, 'Tarim,' in Encyclopaedia of Islam (ist ed., repr. 1993) I p. 673; Hedin, Explorer pp. 219, 233; Stein, Ancient Khotan; John E. Hill, Through the Jade Gate pp. 13, 121, 160–161; Baumer, Southern Silk Road.
1323
Toynbee, Between Oxus and Jumma.
1324
Le Strange, Eastern Caliphate pp. 437–439; Cordier, Histoire generate II pp. 207–211.
1325
Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations iv part 1 pp. 130–172.
1326
Vambery, Bokhara p. 111.
1327
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 212–213.
1328
JR I p. 272.
1329
This is the area associated with the later famous travellers Aurel Stein, Sven Hedin, Albert von Le Coq and Paul Pelliot (see Christopher Baumer, Southern Silk Road). For the Tarim basin see W. Barthold, 'Tarim,' loc. cit. I p. 673. For the Taklamakan Desert see Gunnar Jarring, 'The Toponym Taklamakan,' loc. cit. pp. 227–240; Bahn, World Archaeology pp. 134–135. The Taklamakan desert was also important in eighteenth-century Chinese history (see Perdue, China Marches West).
1330
Yule, Cathay I p. 192. The pass is located at 39° 56' N, 73° 41' E.
1331
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 13–15.
1332
Le Strange, Eastern Caliphate pp. 497–488.
1333
JR II pp. 963–966; JB II p. 376; Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 120.
1334
Bira Shagdar, 'The Mongol Empire in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries,' in Elisseeff, Silk Roads pp. 127–144 (at p. 133).
1335
For different accounts of this battle see Lamb, March of the Barbarians pp. 124–125, 133–134; Chambers, Devil's Horsemen pp. 9–10; Gabriel, Subotai pp. 78–79.
1336
Pittard, 'Mongol Warfare' pp. 12–13.
1337
Grenard, Genghis p. 139; Hartog, Genghis p. 96.
1338
Barthel, Mongolei pp. 34–36.
1339
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 14. The Dabistan-Daban pass is at roughly 46° N, 92° E.
1340
The Ob-Irtysh River, 3,360 miles long, is the seventh longest in the world. Scholars dispute whether the Ob or the Irtysh should be given primacy (as in the Mississippi-Missouri case), but the conventional view is to see the Irtysh as a tributary of the Ob rather than vice versa. For the importance of the Irtysh in history see Di Cosmo, Military Culture pp. 181–185; Millward, Xinjiang p. 33.
1341
The ancient mentions are Herodotus 4.13.1 and Ptolemy 6.16.7. The classic description of the Dzungaria Gate is in Carruthers, Unknown Mongolia pp. 415–418.
1342
Vernadsky, Mongols and Russia pp. 57–60.
1343
Lane, Daily Life p. 116.
1344
Leo de Hartog, 'Army of Genghis Khan,' loc. cit. p. 484; Hartog, Genghis pp. 52–53.
1345
Barthold (Turkestan p. 404) estimates 250,000 in total, 150–200,000 on the Khwarezmia campaign and another 50,000 in China.
1346
Martin, Rise p. 237.
1347
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 210.
1348
Eisma, Chinggis Khan pp. 81–82.
1349
Asa Gambu's reply seems an uncanny preecho of the famous Rob Roy MacGregor's declaration when asked by his putative Jacobite allies to join in the battle of Sherifffnuir in 1715: 'No! No! If they canna do it wi'out me, they canna do-it wi'me.'.
1350
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 277; Barthold, Four Studies pp. 92–108; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 403–404.
1351
Gaubil, Gentchiscan p. 34.
1352
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist p. 85.
1353
For a description of Almaliq, its cotton fields, canals and fruit orchards see ibid. pp. 85–86; cf also Pelliot, 'L'edition collective des oeuvres de Wang Kouo-Wei,' T'oungPao 26 (1929) p. 174.
1354
SHO p. 249; SHR pp. 189–191.
1355
JR II pp. 968–969.
1356
For Banakat see Le Strange, Eastern Caliphate pp. 474, 488.
1357
There is an outstanding analysis of all this in C. C. Walker, 'Genghis Khan's Invasion of South-West Asia,' Canadian Defence Quarterly (1932–1933) pp. 23–39, 156–173 (reprinted as a monograph in 1940).
1358
Áèòâû: ïðè Çàìå (Çàìå-Íàðàããàðå) — ðåøàþùåå ñðàæåíèå Ãàííèáàëà âî Âòîðîé Ïóíè÷åñêîé âîéíå, 202 ãîä äî í. ý.; ïðè Ãàâãàìåëàõ — ñðàæåíèå Àëåêñàíäðà Âåëèêîãî, 331 ãîä äî í. ý.; ïðè Êàííàõ — ñðàæåíèå Ãàííèáàëà, 216 ãîä äî í. ý. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1359
JB I pp. 79–80, 82–86, 347–348; JR II pp. 968–970; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 356, 364, 397–398, 406–407.
1360
Walker, 'Genghis Khan's Invasion,' loc. cit.
1361
Barthold, Histoire des turcs pp. 123–124; Le Strange, Eastern Caliphate pp. 484–485; Skrine & Ross, Heart of Asia pp. 157–159.
1362
JB I pp. 82–84.
1363
Spuler, Mongolen in Iran pp. 24–26.
1364
JR II p. 1048.
1365
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 219–221.
1366
JR II p. 910.
1367
RT II pp. 241–242; JR II pp. 970–971; JB I pp. 84–85.
1368
Ãîðîäèùå ó ñòàíöèè Òèìóð â Óçáåêèñòàíå. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1369
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 278; Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 130.
1370
Wolff, Mongolen pp. 60–71.
1371
JB I pp. 96–97.
1372
JB I p. 87; Barthold, Turkestan p. 179.
1373
JB I p. 92; d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 221–224.
1374
Barthold, Turkestan pp. 417–419.
1375
RT II pp. 243–245; JR II pp. 972–973.
1376
JB I pp. 92–95.
1377
Gabriel, Subotai p. 81.
1378
JB I pp. 98–102; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 407–409; d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 227–228.
1379
Liddell Hart (Great Captains Unveiled pp. 11–15) regards it as possibly the strategic masterpiece in all history.
1380
See Alex Danchev, 'Liddell Hart and the Indirect Approach,' loc. cit. pp. 313–337; Danchev, Alchemist of War.
1381
Vambery, Bokhara p. 28; Wolff Mongolen p. 69.
1382
Le Strange, Eastern Caliphate pp. 461–462.
1383
Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations iv part 1 p. 265; Barthold, Turkestan p. 88.
1384
Frye, Bukhara p. 93; Frye, al-Narshakhi; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 103–104, 112.
1385
Eisma, Chinggis Khan p. 86.
1386
Barthold, Turkestan p. 424.
1387
Togan, Flexibility and Limitation pp. 54–55; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 354–355.
1388
JB I pp. 102–107; Barthold, Turkestan p. 409.
1389
Ibn al-Athir says 11 February (IAA III p. 308) while Juzjani says 15 February (JR II pp. 978–979). Rashid, while giving full details of the siege, mentions no exact date (RT II pp. 245–247).
1390
JR II pp. 976–977; Togan, Flexibility p. 55; Dankoff Wisdom p. 221.
1391
IAA III p. 209.
1392
Barthold, Turkestan pp. 409–410.
1393
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 131.
1394
Eisma, Chinggis Khan p. 87.
1395
JB I p. 107; d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 231–234.
1396
Spuler, Mongolen in Iran p. 22; Barthold, Turkestan p. 410.
1397
Le Strange, Eastern Caliphate p. 463.
1398
Bloom & Blair, Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic ART III pp. 170–177; Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations iv part 1 p. 265.
1399
Le Strange, Eastern Caliphate pp. 463–471.
1400
JB II pp. 376–377.
1401
Part of this weakness was the Shah's own fault. Two years after the final conquest of his empire he still had not replaced the governors he had mindlessly killed (Barthold, Four Studies I p. 71).
1402
Barthold, Four Studies I p. 39; Barthold, Turkestan p. 405.
1403
Barthold, Four Studies I p. 39; Barthold, Turkestan p. 419.
1404
JR II p. 971.
1405
IAA III p. 210; JB II p. 378; Barthold, Turkestan p. 419.
1406
IAA III p. 209; JB I pp. 117–119.
1407
RT II pp. 247–249; JR II p. 990; JB I pp. 117–119.
1408
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 235–239.
1409
Barthold, Turkestan p. 480.
1410
IAA III pp. 209–210.
1411
JB I pp. 121–122; JR II p. 980.
1412
JB I p. 122; Barthold, Turkestan p. 413.
1413
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 240.
1414
In 1221, on his way to visit Genghis, the Chinese sage Chang Chun and his large party of monks did a meticulous count that established that only a quarter of the pre-1219 population had survived (Waley, Travels of an Alchemist p. 93).
1415
Âîñêðåñøèì (ëàò.).
1416
Le Strange, Eastern Caliphate p. 465.
1417
Eisma, Chinggis Khan p. 89.
1418
IAA III p. 210.
1419
Waley, Travels p. 110.
1420
Le Strange, Eastern Caliphate pp. 433–436, 441–444, 457–458.
1421
Wolff, Mongolen p. 77.
1422
Eisma, Chinggis Khan pp. 90–96.
1423
Eisma, Chinggis Khan pp. 90–96.
1424
RT II p. 255; JB I p. 129.
1425
Ñïàñàéñÿ, êòî ìîæåò (ôð.).
1426
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 241.
1427
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 241–242.
1428
JR I p. 275.
1429
JR I p. 276.
1430
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 242–243.
1431
Barthold, Turkestan pp. 428, 446.
1432
JR I p. 274.
1433
SHC pp. 199–200.
1434
IAA III p. 210.
1435
JB I p. 143.
1436
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 244.
1437
Barthold, Turkestan pp. 378–379.
1438
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 244.
1439
RT II pp. 250–251.
1440
JB I p. 144.
1441
JB I p. 145.
1442
For Ferdowsi see Frye, Golden Age p. 200; Davis, Shahnameh. For Tus in general see Kennedy, Court of the Caliphs.
1443
Eisma, Chinggis Khan p. 92.
1444
JB I p. 307; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 420–422. For Damghan see Bloom & Blair, Grove Encycopedia I p. 291; Sha'bani, Book of Iran p. 221.
1445
IAA III pp. 212–213; JR I p. 277.
1446
JB II pp. 466–468; d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 259–260.
1447
JR II p. 1082. For Eljigidei see JB I pp. 184, 249.
1448
Eisma, Chinggis Khan p. 93.
1449
IAA III p. 213.
1450
JR I p. 277; JB II p. 384; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 422–425; d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 254.
1451
Spuler, Mongolen in Iran p. 22; Barthold, Turkestan p. 160; d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 250–251.
1452
JB II p. 384; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 422–425;.
1453
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 254–255.
1454
JB II p. 385; JR II pp. 993–994.
1455
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 254.
1456
JR I p. 279.
1457
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 280; Wolff, Mongolen p. 80.
1458
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 278.
1459
IAA III pp. 211–212.
1460
JB I pp. 142–149.
1461
For the history and culture of Khwarezm see Yuri Bregel, 'The Sarts in the Khanate of Khiva,' Journal of Asian History 12 (1978) pp. 121–151; Bregel, Firdaws al-Iqbal; D. N. MacKenzie, 'Khwarazmian Language and Literature,' in E. Yarshater, ed., Cambridge History of Iran III part 2 pp. 1244–1249.
1462
JB I pp. 174–175.
1463
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 265. For Khiva see Burnaby, Ride to Khiva', Philip Glazebrook, Journey to Khiva', Moser, Asie centrale; Nashriyoti, Khiva.
1464
JR II p. 1097.
1465
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 266.
1466
Le Strange, Eastern Caliphate pp. 458–459; Sykes, Persia p. 64; Daniel, Iran p. 28.
1467
Le Strange, Eastern Caliphate pp. 457–458.
1468
Barthold, Turkestan pp. 433–434.
1469
JR II pp. iioo-iioi; Barthold, Turkestan p. 432.
1470
JB III pp. 399–402; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 280.
1471
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 267.
1472
JB I pp. 123–125.
1473
JR I p. 280.
1474
SHO p. 250; SHR p. 191; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 433, 437.
1475
JB I pp. 123–125.
1476
JR II pp. 1098–1099.
1477
JB II pp. 126–127.
1478
IAA III pp. 227–228; d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 268–269.
1479
Barthold, Turkestan pp. 435–437.
1480
«Íà æàðêîå» èëè «â êà÷åñòâå îñíîâíîãî áëþäà» (ôð.).
1481
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 270.
1482
JB I p. 96; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 131; Allsen, Mongol Imperialism p. 89.
1483
IAA III p. 228; Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) II pp. 41–44.
1484
JB II pp. 402–404.
1485
JB I pp. 174–175; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 424–426.
1486
SHO p. 251; SHR p. 194.
1487
SHO p. 252; SHR p. 194.
1488
IAA III p. 225.
1489
JB I p. 130; Bloom 8C Blair, Islamic Art and Architecture I pp. 258–259; Le Strange, Eastern Caliphate pp. 420–421.
1490
JB I p. 131; Boyle, Cambridge History of Iran v pp. 303–421 (at p. 312); Barthold, Turkestan pp. 427–455.
1491
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 272.
1492
J. A. Boyle, 'On the Titles given in Juvaini to certain Mongolian Princes,' Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 19 (1956) pp. 146–154 (at pp. 146–148); Boyle, 'Iru and Maru in the Secret History of the Mongols,' Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 17 (1954) ðð. 403–410.
1493
For the comparison with Bukhara see Dumper & Stanley, Cities of the Middle East pp. 95–99; cf Frye, al-Narshakhi. The entire vexed question of the size of medieval cities is discussed in Chandler, Urban Growth.
1494
Bloom & Blair, Islamic Art and Architecture II pp. 476–479.
1495
For Tolui on the road to Merv see JR II p. 1028. For the mausoleums of the great Iranian cities — Bukhara, Urgench, Merv and Herat — see Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations, IV part 2 pp. 516–531, 545–549.
1496
For Tolui on the road to Merv see JR II p. 1028. For the mausoleums of the great Iranian cities — Bukhara, Urgench, Merv and Herat — see Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations, IV part 2 p. 265.
1497
Òðåòü èëè ÷åòâåðòü äþéìà, ñðåäíèé ðàçìåð ÿ÷ìåííîãî çåðíà. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1498
For Tolui on the road to Merv see JR II p. 1028. For the mausoleums of the great Iranian cities — Bukhara, Urgench, Merv and Herat — see Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations, iv part 2 p. 297.
1499
The Merv system was a classic example of what one scholar has called 'oriental despotism', known to Marxists as the 'oriental mode of production' (see Wittfogel, Oriental Despotism).
1500
Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations iv part 2 p. 266; Williams, Merv.
1501
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 279–282.
1502
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 283–284.
1503
JB I pp. 153–158.
1504
IAA III pp. 226–227.
1505
JR II pp. 1031–1033.
1506
JB I pp. 158–162; Boyle, 'Dynastic and Political History of the U-Khans,' in Boyle, Cambridge History of Iran v pp. 303–421 (at pp. 313–314).
1507
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 287–288.
1508
Grousset, L'Empire pp. 240–241.
1509
Eisma, Chinggis Khan pp. 98–99.
1510
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 275–276.
1511
JR II p. 1033.
1512
JB I p. 145.
1513
There is a considerable literature on medieval Nishapur. Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations iv part 2 pp. 412–422, 440–443; Bosworth, Historic Cities pp. 421–439; Bloom & Blair, Islamic ART III pp. 59–60; Bulliet, Patricians; Wilkinson, Pottery; R. W. Bulliet, 'Medieval Nishapur: A Topographical and Demographic Reconstruction,' Studia Iranica 5 (1976) pp. 67–89; Meri, Medieval Islamic Civilization ii; Kroger, Glass; C. Melville, 'Earthquakes in the History of Nishapur,' Iran 18 (1980) pp. 103–120. For the population of Nishapur see Bulliet, 'Medieval Nishapur,' loc. cit. p. 88. For Sufism see Margaret Malamud, 'Sufi Organisations and Structures of Authority in Medieval Nishapur,' International Journal of Middle East Studies 26 (1994) pp. 427–442. Naturally no attempt will be made here to refer to the many books on Omar Khayyam.
1514
JB I pp. 169–178.
1515
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 289–291. The ballista was a magnified crossbow which propelled javelins, unlike the mangonel, which hurled stones (Oman, Art of War I pp. 137–138).
1516
JR II p. 1035.
1517
IAA III p. 27.
1518
JB I pp. 169–178.
1519
Òàêæå Õàðóí àð-Ðàøèä. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1520
JB I p. 152; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 281; Boyle, Successors p. 165.
1521
JR II p. 997.
1522
Le Strange, Eastern Caliphate pp. 407–410; Bloom & Blair, Islamic ART II pp. 146–150; Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations iv part 2 p. 272.
1523
IAA III p. 27.
1524
JR II p. 1036.
1525
JR II pp. 1037–1039.
1526
JR II pp. 1037–1039.
1527
JB II p. 403.
1528
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 286–287.
1529
JB II pp. 404, 460.
1530
JR II p. 1083.
1531
JR II p. 1083.
1532
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 273.
1533
IAA III p. 225.
1534
JB I pp. 132–133; Boyle, Successors p. 137.
1535
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 296.
1536
Pelliot, Horde d'Or pp. 86–87.
1537
JR I p. 2.89; JB I p. 405; Barthold, Turkestan p. 442.
1538
Yule, Cathay iv pp. 209, 257; Dupuy, Harper Encyclopedia p. 366.
1539
JR I p. 289.
1540
JB II pp. 406–407.
1541
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 302; Barthold, Turkestan p. 441.
1542
Barthold pp. 441–443.
1543
JR I p. 290.
1544
JR II p. 1003; Barthold, Turkestan p. 443.
1545
RT II p. 256.
1546
Eisma, Chinggis Khan p. 102.
1547
Eisma, Chinggis Khan p. 102.
1548
Barthold, Turkestan pp. 445–446.
1549
JB I p. 174; II p. 411.
1550
JR I p. 291.
1551
IAA III p. 229.
1552
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 306.
1553
Nesawi [Nasawi], Djelal ed-Din Mankobirti pp. 138–141.
1554
JB II pp. 410–411. That this quote is authentic seems confirmed by the similar wording used by Rashid: 'From that father that such a son should come! In all the world no one has ever seen or heard of such a man among the renowned ancients. After saving himself on the shore from such a battle, he will perform many valiant feats' (RT II p. 256).
1555
JR I p. 291.
1556
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 307–308.
1557
JB II pp. 411–413; JR I ð. 537.
1558
JB II p. 391.
1559
The story of Jalal's two-year sojourn in India is a saga in itself, though irrelevant to the history of Genghis Khan. There were frequent battles with local tribesmen, in one of which Jalal was wounded in the arm, and even an inchoate alliance with a Khokhar chieftain, whose daughter he is said to have married. Jalal tried to mould an alliance of the Khilji, Turkoman and Ghori tribes, but this foundered (predictably) on the issue of booty. Jalal spent much time with his Khokar allies in the Salt Range. He penetrated deep into Sind and tried to persuade governor Qabacha to help him, but the governor was too terrified of the Mongols. Jalal's army went on to sack a number of cities (JB II pp. 411–421; JR I pp. 294–295).
1560
JB II pp. 415–421; Eisma, Chinggis Khan p. 103; Chandra, Delhi Sultanate p. 40.
1561
RT II p. 257; JB I pp. 141–142; JR I pp. 534–539; Boyle, 'Iru and Maru,' loc. cit.; d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 309–310; Barthold, Turkestan p. 446.
1562
JB i, p. 37; JR II pp. 1046, 1081. For the absurd claims by Indian nationalists see Qureshi, Administration pp. 136, 140; Ikram, Muslim Civilization pp. 44–45, 59, 63.
1563
McLeod, History of India p. 35.
1564
15,5–18,3 ãðàäóñà ïî Öåëüñèþ. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1565
32 ãðàäóñà ïî Öåëüñèþ. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1566
Jackson, Delhi Sultanate; Wink, Slave Kings; Mehta, Medieval India i.
1567
Gibb, Ibn Battuta II p. 478.
1568
Gibb, Ibn Battuta II p. 479.
1569
J. M. Smith, 'Mongol Manpower and Persian Population,' Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 18 (1975) pp. 271–299.
1570
JB I p. 137; Barthold, Turkestan p. 454.
1571
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 134.
1572
JR II pp. 1045–1047, 1081–1084; JB I p. 139.
1573
Rockhill, Rubruck pp. 187–188; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 289; Krause, Cingis Han p. 39; Chunchiang Yen, 'The Chiiehtuana as Word, Art Motif and Legend,' Journal of the American Oriental Society 89 (1969) pp. 578–599 (at pp. 589–591).
1574
JR II p. 1073; JB I pp. 135–138.
1575
JR II p. 1072.
1576
Eisma, Chinggis Khan p. 102.
1577
JB I p. 135; JR II ðð. 1007, 1043, 1057, 1073, 1126; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 282.
1578
JR II p. 1047; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 293; d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 317; Vladimirtsov, Genghis p. 106; Yate, Khurasan.
1579
Browne, Literary History of Persia II pp. 427–431; Grousset, Empire p. 243.
1580
JR II p. 1048; cf also Dumper & Stanley, Cities of the Middle East p. 169 — quoting the fourteenth-century historian Saif bin Muhammad bin Yaqub Saifi.
1581
JR II p. 1050.
1582
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 315; Barthold, Turkestan p. 449.
1583
JB I p. 131; JR II pp. 1023–1026.
1584
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 312–313.
1585
JR II p. 1050.
1586
Le Strange, Eastern Caliphate pp. 408–409; d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 314. A meticulous account of the siege of Herat is in Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches II pp. 278–290.
1587
JR II pp. 1051–1055.
1588
JR II p. 1055.
1589
JR II pp. 1062–1066.
1590
JR II pp. 1066–1070.
1591
J. T. Wylie, 'The First Mongol Conquest of Tibet Reinterpreted,' Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 37 (1977) pp. 103–133 (at pp. 104–107).
1592
Chase, Firearms p. 58; Adie & Habib, History of Civilizations v p. 58.
1593
Kim Stubbs, 'Facing the Wrath of Genghis Khan,' Military History (May 2006) pp. 30–37.
1594
Jurgen Paul, 'L'invasion mongole comme revelateur de la societe irannienne,' in Aigle, L'lran pp. 37–53 (esp. p. 41).
1595
As is argued in Nesawi [Nasawi], Djelal ed-Din Mankobirti, passim.
1596
For these qualities of the Mongol horse see Bayarsaikhan, Mongol Horse.
1597
Lamb, Genghis, p. 45.
1598
Thackston, Habibu's-siyar I p. 118.
1599
Kolbas, Mongols in Iran pp. 76–77; Boyle, Cambridge History of Iran v p. 308–311.
1600
IAA III p. 214; RT II p. 259; Ñ. E. Bosworth, 'Zanran,' in Encyclopedia of Islam (2nd ed.) XI p. 447.
1601
Buell, Dictionary p. 235.
1602
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 325.
1603
IAA III p. 214.
1604
Altunian, Mongolen und ihre Eroberungen p. 21.
1605
For exhaustive detail see Constant, L'Azerbaidjan.
1606
Morgan, Mongols p. 142.
1607
P. Halfter, 'Die militarischen Triumphe der Georgier und ein wenig beachtetes Erdbeben an der Grenze Armenisch-Kilikiens (c. Ende August 1213),' Le Museon 122 (2009) pp. 423–427.
1608
Strabo 11.13.5; it.14.5; Ptolemy 5.12; Pliny the Elder 6.39.
1609
IAA III p. 215; RT II p. 259; E. Schutz, 'Tatarenstiirme in Gebirgsgelande,' Central Asiatic Journal 17 (1973) pp. 253–273 (at p. 256).
1610
Pierre-Vincent Claverie, 'L'apparition des Mongols sur la scene politique occidentale, 1220–1223,' Le Moyen Age 105 (1999) pp. 601–613 (at pp. 608–609); M.-F. Brosset, Histoire de la Georgie I pp. 440, 442, 459.
1611
IAA III pp. 216–217.
1612
Ýðáèëü íàõîäèòñÿ â Èðàêå. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1613
IAA III p. 217; Tyerman, God's War. pp. 641–649.
1614
Peters, Christian Society pp. 90–91, 123–124.
1615
IAA III pp. 218–219.
1616
IAA III p. 219.
1617
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 332–333.
1618
IAA III p. 220.
1619
ibid.; d'Ohsson I ðð. 333–334.
1620
Altunian, Die Mongolen p. 21; Schutz, 'Tatarenstiirme,' loc. cit. p. 258.
1621
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 334–336.
1622
Utik, then a province of Armenia, is today in Azerbaijan. (Mark Chakin, Armenia p. 181).
1623
Bedrosian, Kirakos Gandzakets'i pp. 234–235.
1624
IAA III p. 221.
1625
Bedrosian, Kirakos pp. 201–203. For other accounts of the Mongols in Armenia see Bedrosian, 'Armenia during the Seljuk and Mongol Periods,' in Hovannisian, Armenian People I pp. 241–291 (esp. p. 256); Thomson, Rewriting Caucasian History; Dashdondog, Mongols and Armenians p. 43; Herrin & Saint-Guillain, Identities and Allegiances.
1626
This is the modern Shamkir, now in Azerbaijan, scene of a Georgian victory over the Azerbaijanis in 1195 (Allen, Georgian People p. 104).
1627
IAA III pp. 221–222.
1628
Gabriel, Subotai p. 93.
1629
RT II p. 259; IAA III p. 221; Schutz, 'Tatarenstiirme,' loc. cit. p. 257; Suny, Making of the Georgian Nation pp. 39–44; Rayfield, Edge of Empires.
1630
Rodenberg, Epistolae I pp. 178–179.
1631
Äîñëîâíî: «Äëÿ ïîîùðåíèÿ äðóãèõ». Èðîíèÿ ïåðåäàåò ñìûñë: «Â íàçèäàíèå äðóãèì» (ôð.).
1632
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 335; RT II p. 260; IAA III p. 222. For the Caucasus see de Waal, Caucasus; Coene, Caucasus.
1633
I. Nasidze et al, 'Genetic Evidence Concerning the Origin of the South and North Ossetians,' Annals of Human Genetics (2004) pp. 588–589. For the Alans see Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck op. cit. pp. 102–103, 259; Dawson, Mongol Mission, p. 41. They had been converted to Greek Orthodox Christianity in the tenth century (Jean Dauvillier, 'Byzantins d'Asie centrale et d'Extreme-Orient au moyen age, 'Revue des Etudes Byzantines 11 (1953) pp. 73–80).
1634
For the Circassians see Spencer, Western Caucasus p. 6; cf also Bell, Journal; Jaimoukha, Circassians.
1635
Pelliot, 'A propos des Comans,' Journal Asiatique 11 (1920) pp. 133–150 (esp. p. 149); A. Bruce Boswell, 'The Kipchak Turks,' Slavonic Review 6 (1928) pp. 68–85; Vernadsky, Kievan Russia pp. 86–90, 222–225, 235–238.
1636
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 337.
1637
RT II p. 260; IAA III p. 222.
1638
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 295–298.
1639
Wallace, Rise of Russia p. 38.
1640
Ñóäàê (òàêæå Ñóðîæ, Ñóãäåÿ). — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1641
Marie Nystazopoulou-Pelekidis, 'Venise et la Mer Noire du Xie au XVe siecle,' in A. Pertusi, ed., Venezia I pp. 541–582; Phillips, Medieval Expansion pp. 96–114; Lane, Venice.
1642
L. Petachi, 'Les marchands italiens dans l'empire mongol,' Journal Asiatique 250 (1962) pp. 549–574; Crowdy, Enemy Within p. 49; Bratianu, Commerce genois. The Mongols always favoured the Venetians and protected their merchants on the Silk Road (Peter Jackson, Delhi Sultanate pp. 252–253).
1643
Ñâåòëåéøàÿ. Òîðæåñòâåííîå íàçâàíèå Âåíåöèàíñêîé ðåñïóáëèêè ñ êîíöà VII âåêà äî 1797 ãîäà. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1644
Ciociltan, Black Sea Trade, esp. pp. 141–157. See also the extensive work by Nicola di Cosmo, 'Mongols and Merchants on the Black Sea Frontier in the 13th and 14th Centuries: Convergences and Conflicts,' in Amitai & Biran, Mongols, Turks pp. 391–424; di Cosmo, 'Black Sea Empire and the Mongol Empire: A Reassessment of the Pax Mongolica,' Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 53 (2010) pp. 83–108.
1645
Ýòè ñëîâà ïðèíàäëåæàò àðàáñêîìó èñòîðèêó Äæóâåéíè, îöåíèâàþùåìó ðåçóëüòàòû ìîíãîëüñêîãî íàøåñòâèÿ íà Òóðêåñòàí: Àòà-Ìåëèê Äæóâåéíè. ×èíãèñõàí. Èñòîðèÿ çàâîåâàòåëÿ ìèðà. Ì.: Ìàãèñòð-Ïðåññ, 2004. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1646
JB I p. 107; Chambers, Devil's Horsemen p. 24.
1647
Magocsi, Ukraine p. 76.
1648
Pipes, Karamzin pp. 105, 110.
1649
Òàê ó àâòîðà. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1650
Êîðîëü Íîðâåãèè. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1651
Volodymyr Mezentsev, 'The Territorial and Demographic Development of Medieval Kiev and Other Major Cities of Rus: A Comparative Analysis Based on Recent Archaeological Research,' The Russian Review 48 (1989) pp. 145–170.
1652
Martin, Medieval Russia p. 61; Franklin & Shepard, Emergence of Rus pp. 2, 13, 279, 282, 287.
1653
Martin, Medieval Russia p. 61; Franklin & Shepard, Emergence of Rus pp. 337–339. See also the articles in Perrie, Cambridge History of Russia, viz: Jonathan Shepard, 'The Origins of Rus c. 900–1015,' pp. 45–72; Simon Franklin, 'Kievan Rus, 1015–1125,' ðð. 73–97; Martin Dimnick, 'The Rus Principalities, 1125–1246,' pp. 98–126.
1654
Fennell, Crisis pp. 6–9, 12–15, 23; Pelenski, Contest for the Legacy.
1655
Moss, History of Russia I pp. 55–59.
1656
Thomas S. Noonan, 'Suzdalia's eastern trade in the century before the Mongol Conquest,' Cahiers du monde russe et sovietique 19 (1978) pp. 371–384; Martin, Medieval Russia pp. 70, 98–101, 112, 121; Langer, Medieval Russia pp. 245–248; Soloviev, Shift Northward.
1657
Moss, History of Russia p. 60.
1658
Òþðåìíàÿ êàìåðà â ôîðòå Óèëüÿì, ãäå â íî÷ü íà 20 èþíÿ 1756 ãîäà çàäîõíóëèñü àíãëè÷àíå, çàòî÷åííûå áåíãàëüñêèì íàâàáîì Ñèðàäæ óä-Äàóëîì. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1659
Fennell, Crisis pp. 45–51.
1660
Fennell, Crisis 17–19; Martin, Medieval Russia pp. 66–70, 81–88, 101–103, 106–107, 121–122, 126, 128.
1661
Lazarev, Russian Icon pp. 47–48, 53–56, 67; Valentin L. Ianin, 'Medieval Russia,' in Persie, Cambridge History of Russia I pp. 188–210; Riasanovsky & Steinberg, History of Russia pp. 75–76; Martin, Medieval Russia p. 126.
1662
Mitchell & Forbes, Chronicle of Novgorod, p. 25; Martin, Medieval Russia pp. 114–115.
1663
Paul Bushkovitch, 'Urban Ideology in Medieval Novgorod: An Iconographic Approach,' Cahiers du monde russe et sovietique 16 (1975) pp. 19–26.
1664
Martin, Medieval Russia p. 123.
1665
Christian, History of Russia I p. 364.
1666
«Çàñòîé». — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1667
Riasanovsky, History of Russia 1993 ed.) p. 42.
1668
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 297; II p. 71.
1669
Barthold, Histoire des turcs pp. 88–91; Golden, Nomads and their Neighbours; Golden, Turkic Peoples.
1670
Robert L. Wolff, 'The Second Bulgarian Empire: Its Origins and History to 1204,' Speculum 24 (1949) pp. 167–206; Paul Stephenson, Byzantium's Balkan Frontier: A Political Study of the Northern Balkans, 900–1204 (Cambridge 2000); Spinei, Romanians.
1671
Monumenta Germaniae Historiae, Scriptores 21 (1869) p. 216; A. Bruce Boswell, 'The Kipchak Turks,' Slavonic Review 6 (1928) pp. 68–85.
1672
Vasary, Cumans and Tatars pp. 4–7, 13–56; Christian, History of Russia I p. 361; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 43–114.
1673
Chaliand, Nomadic Empires p. 52.
1674
Christian, History of Russia I p. 358.
1675
Vernadsky, Source Book for Russian History I p. 31.
1676
Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck p. 70.
1677
Peter B. Golden, 'The Qipchaqs of Medieval Russia,' in Seaman & Marks, Rulers from the Steppe pp. 186–204 (at pp. 197–198).
1678
For a good summary of the Polovtsian raids and the countercampaigns see Vernadsky, Kievan Russia pp. 86–90, 222–225, 235–238.
1679
For the complex politics of Chernigov and Igor's role see Dimnik, Dynasty of Chernigov pp. 108–240.
1680
Nabokov, Song of Igor's Campaign 11. 93–112.
1681
Nabokov, Song of Igor's Campaign 11. 153–171.
1682
These events are described in a number of sources: Mitchell & Forbes, Chronicle of Novgorod p. 32; Cross & Sherbowitz-Wetzor, Russian Primary Chronicle; S. A. Zenkovsky, Medieval Russian Epics pp. 137–138; 'The Lay of Igor's Campaign,' in Fennell & Obolensky, A Historical Russian Reader pp. 63–72; Martin, Medieval Russia p. 131.
1683
Nabokov, Song 11. 733–834.
1684
Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde p. 15.
1685
T. S. Noonan, 'Rus, Pechenegs and Polovtsy: Economic Interactions along the Steppe Frontier in the Pre-Mongol Era,' Russian History 19 (1992) pp. 301–327.
1686
Òàêæå Ìñòèñëàâ Óäàòíûé. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1687
Mitchell & Forbes, Chronicle of Novgorod p. 65.
1688
Mitchell & Forbes, Chronicle of Novgorod p. 64. For more on Russian ignorance of the Mongols see Grekov & Iakoubovski, Horde d'Or pp. 54, 1901–91; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 296; Bezzola, Mongolen in abendlandischer Sicht p. 41.
1689
J. Fennell, 'The Tatar Invasion of 1223,' Forschungen zur osteuropaischen Geschichte 27 (1980) pp. 18–31. Fennell, like many other writers, places the Battle of Kalka in the year 1222, which the best scholarship has now established as the true date. If the battle of Kalka was indeed fought in 1223, there is an entire twelve-month black hole to be accounted for, as our detailed narrative has made clear.
1690
Fennell, Crisis p. 65.
1691
Grekov & Iakoubovski, Horde d'Or p. 193.
1692
Fennell, Crisis p. 66.
1693
Chambers, Devil's Horsemen pp. 17–30.
1694
Òàêæå Ãàíèáåê. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1695
Gabriel, Subotai p. 99. Vernadsky (Kievan Russia p. 237) says that Mtsislav the Bold 'succeeded in defeating a detachment of Mongol troops' but does not mention that they had been left behind as a suicide squad (suggestio falsi!).
1696
Munro, Rise of the Russian Empire p. 81.
1697
For the entire Kalka campaign the best guide is Nicolle, Kalka.
1698
Òàê ó àâòîðà. Ñîãëàñíî ðîññèéñêîé èñòîðèîãðàôèè, äàòà áèòâû — 31 ìàÿ 1223 ãîäà. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1699
Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 132.
1700
Mitchell & Forbes, Chronicle of Novgorod pp. 65–66; Fennell, Crisis p. 91.
1701
Gabriel, Subotai p. 100.
1702
Nicolle, Kalka p. 74; Martin, Medieval Russia p. 132.
1703
Ýòî èìÿ äàåò àâòîð. Òàêæå Ïëîñêûíÿ. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1704
Grekov & Iakoubovski, Horde d'Or p. 194; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 297.
1705
Nicolle, Kalka pp. 76–82.
1706
Nicolle, Kalka pp. 75.
1707
IAA III p. 224.
1708
Nicolle, Kalka p. 74.
1709
Jackson, Mongols and the West p. 49.
1710
Âñå ëåòîïèñíûå öèòàòû äàíû ïî òåêñòó: «Ïîâåñòü î áèòâå íà Êàëêå, è î êíÿçüÿõ ðóññêèõ, è î ñåìèäåñÿòè áîãàòûðÿõ». Òâåðñêàÿ ëåòîïèñü. Ñáîðíèê. Ì., 1990. Áèáëèîòåêà «Õàëêèäîí». Halkidon2006.Orthodoxy.ru. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1711
Mitchell & Forbes, Chronicle of Novgorod p. 66; Zenkovsky, Medieval Russian Epics p. 195.
1712
For a good summary of the campaign and its consequence see Grousset, L'empire mongol pp. 517–520.
1713
For a description of the lands the Mongols traversed on the way to Samara see Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 131; Haxthausen, Russian Empire II pp. 70, 223; Clarke, Travels p. 47.
1714
I. Zimonyi, 'The First Mongol Raid against the Volga Bulgars,' in Jarring & Rosen, Altaic Papers pp. 197–204 (at pp. 197–199); A. M. Khalikov, Mongols, Tatars p. 24 (I am grateful to Dr Malcolm Chapman for translations of the relevant sections of this source.).
1715
The correct version (in my view) is in d'Ohsson, Histoire, I p. 346 and Grousset, Empire of the Steppes p. 247. Ibn al-Athir implies that the Mongol defeat at Samara Bend was serious (1AA III p. 224) and is backed by Jackson, Mongols and the West p. 39. For other views see Barthold, Four Studies I p. 41 and de Hartog, Mongol Yoke p. 25. Chambers, Devil's Horseman p. 31 is adamant that the story of a serious Mongol reverse is lying Bulgar propaganda.
1716
Encyclopedia of Islam (2nd ed.) VIII pp. 895–898.
1717
Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 19.
1718
JR II pp. 1102–1103; Chambers, Devil's Horsemen p. 31; Rachewiltz, In the Service pp. 19–20; Hartog, Genghis p. 123. For a judicious analysis of Jebe see Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 533–538.
1719
Liddell Hart, Great Captains Unveiled.
1720
George Lane, 'The Mongols in Iran,' in Daryaee, Iranian History pp. 243–70 (at p. 248); d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 323.
1721
IAA III p. 215.
1722
Rachewiltz, In the Service pp. 95–96.
1723
Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations iv part 2 pp. 510–512.
1724
Devin DeWeese, 'Stuck in the Throat of Chingiz Khan: Envisioning Mongol Conquest in some Sufi Accounts of the Fourteenth to the Seventeenth Centuries,' in Pfeiffer & Quinn, Post-Mongol Central Asia pp. 23–60 (at pp. 32–33, 52).
1725
Devin DeWeese, 'Stuck in the Throat of Chingiz Khan: Envisioning Mongol Conquest in some Sufi Accounts of the Fourteenth to the Seventeenth Centuries,' in Pfeiffer & Quinn, Post-Mongol Central Asia pp. 46–49.
1726
Hamid Algar, 'Some Observations on religion in Safavid Persia,' Iranian Studies 7 (1974) pp. 287–293; Devin DeWeese, 'The Eclipse of the Kubraviyah in Central Asia,' Iranian Studies 21 (1988) pp. 45–83; Lawson, Reason and Inspiration p. 303.
1727
DeWeese, 'Stuck in the Throat,' loc. cit. pp. 42–43, 46–47.
1728
Kohn, Daoism; Silvers, Taoist Manual.
1729
Vincent Goosaert, 'Quanzhen,' in Pregadio, Encyclopedia of Taoism II pp. 814–820; Komjathy, Cultivating Perfection.
1730
Âòîðûìè àâòîð ïðèâîäèò âòîðûå êèòàéñêèå èìåíà (äàîññêèå èìåíà ñîîòâåòñòâåííî — Ìà Äàíúÿí, Òàíü ×àí÷æýíü, Ëþ ×àíøýí, Öþ ×àí ×óíü. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1731
Äàîññêèå èìåíà ñîîòâåòñòâåííî — Õàî Ãóàííèí, Âàí Þéÿí, Ñóíü Öèííöçèí. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1732
Despaux & Kohn, Women in Daoism pp. 142–148.
1733
Eskildsen, Early Quanzhen Taoist Masters pp. 10. 12, 18.
1734
For a full suvey of Chang Chun's career see Rachewiltz, In the Service pp. 208–223.
1735
Tao, Jurchen pp. 106–107.
1736
For these arguments see Komjathy, Cultivating Perfection.
1737
There is a huge literature on alchemy and Quanzhen. Representative titles include Pregadio, Awakening to Reality; Pregadio, Chinese Alchemy; Mu, Neidan.
1738
Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 143.
1739
Arthur Waley, Travels of an Alchemist pp. 44–45.
1740
Edouard Chavannes, 'Inscriptions et pieces de chancellerie chinoises de l'epoque mongole,' T'oungPao 9 (1908) pp. 297–428 (atp. 399). Another version can be found in Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 37–39.
1741
Ñàìîëþáèå (ôð.).
1742
Chung to Genghis, April 1220, in Chavannes, 'Inscriptions,' loc. cit. p. 303.
1743
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 43–44.
1744
Chavannes, 'Inscriptions,' p. 305.
1745
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist pp. 59–64.
1746
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist pp. 64–65; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 50–51.
1747
We are not told who the queen was. The inference was that it must have been the ordo of Yesugei or Yesui (and possibly both). It cannot have been Borte's, and Qularis ordo was in the Khenti Mountains of eastern Mongolia (Weatherford, Secret History of the Mongol Queens p. 28). In any case Qulan was with Genghis in the Hindu Kush.
1748
For the city of craftsmen see Allsen, Commodity and Exchange p. 35. For Chinqai see Rachewiltz, In the Service pp. 95–110; Dawson, Mongol Mission pp. 66–67; Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo II p. 825.
1749
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist pp. 72–75; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 61.
1750
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist pp. 75–77.
1751
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist pp. 78; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 64–67.
1752
Pelliot, 'Des artisans chinois a la capitale Abbasid,' T'oung Pao 26 (1928) pp. 1–762.
1753
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist p. 85; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 69.
1754
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist pp. 86–92; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 73–77.
1755
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist p. 93.
1756
For Yelu Ahai see JB I p. 97; Rachewiltz, In the Service pp. 112–121 (esp. pp. 118–119); Pelliot, 'Notes sur le "Turkestan",' loc. cit. pp. 47–48.
1757
For Yelu Chu Cai see Rachewiltz, In the Service pp. 136–175.
1758
Íè áîëüøå íè ìåíüøå, àâòîðèòåòíî (ëàò.).
1759
For Yelu Chu Cai see Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 144.
1760
For Yelu Chu Cai see Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 144.
1761
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist pp. 94–98.
1762
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 82–86.
1763
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist pp. 98–100.
1764
As later revealed in the debates held at the Mongol court in the 1250s between Friar William of Rubruck and the priests of rival religions (Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck pp. 225–233). Cf Richard Fox Young, 'Deus Unus or Dei Plures Sunt? The Function of Inclusiveness in the Buddhist Defense of Mongol Folk Religion against William of Rubruck,' Journal of Ecumenical Studies 26 (1989) pp. 100–137.
1765
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist p. 102.
1766
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist pp. 103–16; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 87–93.
1767
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist pp. 111–112; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 94–96.
1768
Tao-chung Yao, 'Chi'u Ch'u-chi and Chinggis Khan,' Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 46 (1986) pp. 201–219; Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan, pp. 134–135, 149–150, 238.
1769
This might be described as an ur-Kantian notion, as Kant described his noumenon as an object of thought but not of knowledge.
1770
See Chavannes & Pelliot, Un traite manicheen p. 289.
1771
Reid, The Tao of Health p. 26; Welch, Taoism p. 154.
1772
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist pp. 24, 118. As for the precious gift of 'life', scholars are divided about whether Chang meant Genghis's or, as a Buddhist, all life including the boar's. An educated guess might be that he was being deliberately ambiguous.
1773
Î÷åâèäíî, èìååòñÿ â âèäó òóðàíñêèé (êàñïèéñêèé) òèãð, êîòîðûé îáèòàë íà âñåì ïðîñòðàíñòâå îò ïðåäãîðèé Òÿíü-Øàíÿ äî Êàâêàçà. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1774
JB II p. 613.
1775
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist p. 115.
1776
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist pp. 115–116.
1777
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 97–108.
1778
Chavannes, 'Inscriptions et pieces,' loc. cit. p. 372.
1779
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist pp. 119–133.
1780
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist pp. 135–136.
1781
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist p. 150.
1782
Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 145.
1783
Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 198.
1784
Paul Demieville, 'La situation religieuse en Chine au temps de Marco Polo,' Oriente Poliano (Rome 1957) ðð. 193–236 (at pp. 200–201); Rachewiltz, 'The Hsi-Yu-lu by Yeh-Lii Ch'u Ts'ai,' Monumenta Serica 21 (1962) pp. 1–128 (at pp. 25–37).
1785
«Òîò, êòî öåëóåò, è òîò, êòî ïîäñòàâëÿåò ùåêó» (ôð.).
1786
RT II p. 258; Barthold, Four Studies I pp. 41, 64; Grousset, Empire p. 244.
1787
JR II pp. 1083–1084.
1788
Martin, Rise pp. 283–284.
1789
JR II p. 1084.
1790
d'Ohsson, Histoire I pp. 322–323.
1791
SHO p. 251; SHR pp. 192–193; Barthold, Turkestan p. 455; d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 233.
1792
SHO p. 260; SHR p. 198.
1793
A. P. Martinez, 'The Use of Mint-Output Data in Historical Research on the Western Appanages,' in Sinor, Aspects pp. 87–126; Atwood, Encyclopedia p. 362.
1794
Of the many examples of this see, Eleanor Sims, 'Trade and Travel: Markets and Caravanserais,' in Michell, Architecture pp. 80–111; Verschuer, Across the Perilous Sea.
1795
JB I p. 96; Yule, Cathay II pp. 287–288; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 283; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 456–457.
1796
Riasanovsky, Fundamental Principles p. 88; Fletcher, 'The Mongols,' loc. cit. p. 50.
1797
For the improved Mongol diet see Paul D. Buell, 'Pleasing the palate of the Qan: changing foodways of the imperial Mongols,' Mongolian Studies 13 (1990) pp. 69–73; Buell, 'Mongol Empire and Turkicisation: the evidence of food and foodways,' in Amitai-Preiss & Morgan, eds, Mongol Empire op. cit. pp. 200–223; Lane, Daily Life pp. 173–178.
1798
Hildinger, Story of the Mongols pp. 17, 51.
1799
Lane, Daily Life pp. 152–153.
1800
John Smith, 'Dietary Decadence and Dynastic Decline in the Mongol Empire,' Journal of Asian Studies 34 (2000) pp. 35–52.
1801
W Barthold, 'The Burial Rites of the Turks and Mongols,' Central Asiatic Journal 12 (1968) pp. 195–227; Boyle, 'Kirakos,' p. 207; J. A. Boyle, 'A Form of Horse Sacrifice among the Thirteenth and Fourteenth-Century Mongols,' Central Asiatic Journal 10 (1965) pp. 145–150; Pelliot, Recherches p. 99.
1802
Skelton, Marston & Painter, Vinland Map pp. 92–93.
1803
de Windt, From Pekin to Calais.
1804
H. Haslund, Mongol Journey pp. 172–173. According to experts, the word kodagalaku in Mongolian means the depositing of a corpse on the steppes (Lessing, Mongolian-English Dictionary p. 477). For the connections of this practice with Mongol religion in general see Bonnefoy, Asian Mythologies pp. 314–339; Heissig, Synkretismus.
1805
JR II p. 1102; d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 447.
1806
Barthold, Turkestan p. 458.
1807
JB I p. 118.
1808
Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom p. 323; Pelliot, Horde d'Or pp. 10–27.
1809
JR II p. 1103.
1810
Èìååòñÿ â âèäó àíãëèéñêèé ôèëîñîô è òåîðåòèê îáùåñòâåííîãî äîãîâîðà («Ëåâèàôàí») Òîìàñ Ãîááñ. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1811
The words are by Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan Part 1, Chapter 17.
1812
JR II p. 1103; Barthold, Turkestan p. 495.
1813
Morgan, The Mongols pp. 64–65.
1814
Shensong — ó àâòîðà, ðàíåå — Shen-Tsung (ãëàâà 10). Àíü-öþàíü ñîâåðøèë ïåðåâîðîò â 1206 ãîäó è ñâåðã èìïåðàòîðà ×óíü-þ, êîòîðûé ïðåæäå óäîñòîèë åãî òèòóëà ×æýíüèöçþíü (êíÿçü îáëàñòè ×æýíüè).  1211 ãîäó Àíü-öþàíü âûíóæäåííî îòðåêñÿ îò òðîíà, è åãî ìåñòî çàíÿë Öçþíü-ñÿí. Èìïåðàòîðû Ñè Ñÿ ýòîãî ïåðèîäà: ×óíü-þ (1193–1206); Àíü-öþàíü (1206–1211): Öçóíü-ñÿí (1211–1223); Äý-âàí (1223–1226); Íàíüïèí âàí-Ñÿíü (1226–1227). Êû÷àíîâ Å. È. Î÷åðê èñòîðèè òàíãóòñêîãî ãîñóäàðñòâà. Ì.: Íàóêà, 1968. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1815
As has been well said, 'Asha Gambu's definite refusal to negotiate or compromise provoked the Mongols' devastatingly thorough obliteration of the Tangut state' (Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 211).
1816
Martin, Rise.
1817
Äðóãîå èìÿ — Öçóíü-ñÿí. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1818
ibid. p. 285.
1819
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History pp. 210–211.
1820
Martin, Rise p. 286.
1821
Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I pp. 304–330.
1822
JB I p. 147.
1823
SHC p. 205; SHO pp. 257–258; SHR pp. 196–198.
1824
Krause, Cingis Han p. 39.
1825
Martin, Rise pp. 289–290.
1826
Ksenia Kepping, 'The Name of the Tangut Empire,' T'oung Pao 80 (1994) pp. 357–376; Kepping, 'Chinggis Khan's Last Campaign as seen by the Tanguts,' in Kepping, Recent Articles pp. 172–195.
1827
Vladimirtsov, Genghis p. 185.
1828
Mote, Imperial China p. 257.
1829
JR II pp. 1085–1086.
1830
Meignan, Paris to Pekin pp. 356–357.
1831
For Qara Qoto see Wang & Perkins, Collections of Sir Aurel Stein pp. 42–44; Kozlow, Chara-choto p. 383; John Carswell, 'A Month in Mongolia: Khara-Khoto revisited,' Asian Affairs 29 (1998) pp. 287–298.
1832
RT II p. 261; Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 211.
1833
RT II p. 261; Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 211.
1834
Ebrey, East Asia p. 199; Kohn, Dictionary of Wars p. 205; Li, China at War p. 139. There are also some pointers to the devastation in A. P. Terentyev-Katansky, 'The Appearance, Clothes and Utensils of the Tanguts,' in Olderogge, ed., Countries and Peoples pp. 215–244.
1835
Äðóãîå íàçâàíèå — õóííó. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1836
Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I p. 315; Yule & Cordier, Ser Marco Polo I Chapter 45.
1837
R. W. Dunnell, 'Locating the Tangut Military Estabishment; Uraqai (Wulahai) and the Heishui Zhenyan army,' Monumenta Serica 40 (1992) pp. 219–234 (at pp. 223–228).
1838
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 211.
1839
Martin, Rise p. 300.
1840
Martin, Rise pp. 293–294.
1841
It is surprising that there is no mention of Subedei's important campaign in Gabriel, Subotai.
1842
For the Nan Shan or Qilian mountains see Winchester, Man Who Loved China p. 126. For the Alashan desert see Lattimore, 'Return to China's Northern Frontiers,' Geographical Journal 139 (1973) pp. 233–242.
1843
Martin, Rise p. 293. For the historical importance of Wuwei see Hill, Through the Jade Gate p. 45.
1844
The Nine Fords of the Yellow River feature in what has been described as the most famous love story in Chinese literature, by Wang Shifu; The Story of the Western Wing, p. 118. See also the book review by David L. Rolston, 'The Story of the Western Wing,' The China Quarterly 145 (1996) pp. 231–232.
1845
Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo III p. 296; Martin, Rise p. 295.
1846
Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I pp. 315–317; Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 973–975; Martin, Rise p. 294.
1847
d'Ohsson, Histoire I p. 273.
1848
RT II pp. 261–262; Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I p. 315; II pp. 641–643; Krause, Cingis Han pp. 39–40.
1849
Martin, Rise p. 299.
1850
Herrmann, Atlas of China pp. 42, 44, 47; Yule & Cordier, Ser Marco Polo I pp. 282–283.
1851
SHC p. 207; SHO p. 261; SHR pp. 199–200.
1852
RT II p. 263.
1853
RT II p. 263; Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I pp. 310–315; II pp. 641–642.
1854
Ruth W Dunnell, 'The Fall of the Xia Empire: Sino-Steppe Relations in the Late Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries,' in Seaman & Marks, Rulers from the Steppe pp. 158–183 (at pp. 178–179).
1855
1368–1644 ãîäû. Îñíîâàíà â ðåçóëüòàòå ñâåðæåíèÿ ìîíãîëüñêîé äèíàñòèè Þàíü. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1856
Mote, Imperial China pp. 256–257; Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 214.
1857
For an assessment of the population losses see Boland-Crewe 8t Lea, People's Republic of China p. 215.
1858
Martin, Rise p. 296.
1859
Martin, Rise p. 296.
1860
For the myriad problems engendered by this division of the empire see, in greater detail, RT II pp. 349–350. 535, 583, 649, 654.
1861
JB I p. 119; T. Allsen, 'The Princes of the Left Hand: An Introduction to the History of the Ulus of Ordu in the Thirteenth and Early Fourteenth Centuries,' Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 5 (1987) pp. 5–40.
1862
P. Jackson, 'The Dissolution of the Mongol Empire,' Central Asiatic Journal 22 (1978) pp. 186–244 (esp. p. 193); Fletcher, 'The Mongols,' loc. cit. p. 50.
1863
JR II pp. 1086–1087.
1864
Wittfogel & Feng, Liao pp. 398–400; Ratchnevsky & Aubin, Un code des Yuan III p. lxvi; Ayalon, 'The Great Yasa,' loc. cit. (1971) pp. 151–180; Peter Turchin, Jonathan M. Adams & Thomas D. Hall, 'East-West Orientation of Historical Empires,' Journal of World-Systems Research 12 (2006) pp. 219–229.
1865
Barfield, Perilous Frontier pp. 210–212.
1866
RT II p. 262; SHO p. 15.
1867
Rachewiltz, 'Some Remarks on the Ideological Foundations of Chingis Khan's Empire,' Papers on Far Eastern History 7 (1993) pp. 21–36; Eric Voegelin, 'The Mongol Orders of Submission to the European Powers, 1245–1255,' Byzantion 15 (1941) pp. 378–413.
1868
SHC p. 209; SHO p. 261; SHR pp. 199–200.
1869
Krause, Cingis Han p. 40; Vladimirtsov, Genghis p. 115.
1870
Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 975–977.
1871
Mostaert, Sur quelques passages pp. 220–225.
1872
Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 995.
1873
JR II p. 1096; JB ip. 180.
1874
Äðóãîé âàðèàíò èìåíè — Ãóðáýëäæèí. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1875
Buell, Dictionary pp. 240–241. Rachewiltz refers to 'colourful folklore motifs such as unusual sexual injury caused by the Tangut queen' (Commentary p. 980).
1876
ibid. For an investigation of the possible causes of death see D. C. Wright, 'The Death of Chinggis Khan in Mongolian, Chinese, Persian and European Sources,' in Berta, Historic and Linguistic Interaction pp. 425–433; E. Haenisch, 'Die letzte Feldziige Cinggis Hans und sein Tod nach der ostasiatischen Uberlieferung, 'Asia Minor 9 (1933) pp. 503–551. See also the review of same by Pelliot in T'oung Pao 31 (1934) pp. 157–167.
1877
RT II pp. 263–264; JR II p. 1088; JB I p. 183; Krause, Cingis Han pp. 40–41; Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I pp. 305–309, 327.
1878
RT II p. 264.
1879
Krueger, Erdeni-yin Tobci; Bawden, Altan Tobci pp. 144–145.
1880
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan pp. 142–144.
1881
JR II p. 1089.
1882
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 144.
1883
JB I p. 163; Barfield, Perilous Frontier pp. 207–209.
1884
JB II p. 549.
1885
Mostaert, Sur quelques passages pp. 100–185; Frangoise Aubin, 'Le statut de l'enfant sans la societe mongole,' L'Enfant 35 (1975) ðð. 459–599 (at pp. 551–553); d'Ohsson, Histoire II p. 9;.
1886
Krause, Cingis Han p. 41; Boyle, Successors pp. 186–187.
1887
Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 936.
1888
JB I pp. 183–190; Boyle, Successors pp. 30–31, 181–182; Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 936.
1889
SHC pp. 190–195; SHR pp. 181–186.
1890
Mostaert pp. 200–207.
1891
Boyle, Successors p. 190; d'Ohsson, Histoire II p. 13.
1892
JB II p. 549; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 160; Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes pp. 175–177; Vladimirtsov, Le regime social pp. 66–67.
1893
Boyle, Successors p. 43.
1894
Òàêæå Øåéáàíè. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1895
Pelliot, Horde d'Or pp. 24, 28–29.
1896
Peter Jackson, 'From Ulus to Khanate: The Making of the Mongol States c. 1220–1290,' in Amitai-Preiss & Morgan, Mongol Empire pp. 12–38.
1897
For Toregene see JB I pp. 239–244.
1898
JR II p. 1104.
1899
Boyle, Successors p, 228; Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I p. 253.
1900
SHO p. 277; SHR pp. 207–208.
1901
Boyle, Successors ðð. 93–94; JB I pp. 235–236.
1902
Boyle, Successors p. 80.
1903
JB I pp. 201–202; Boyle, Successors pp. 76, 81–82.
1904
JB I pp. 208–235 provides many stories of Ogodei's generosity, making it appear almost pathological or mythical, as if he were a hero in a Frank Capra movie.
1905
Boyle, Successors pp. 83–89, 92–93.
1906
SHO p. 262; SHR pp. 201–202.
1907
Ïðåñòóïëåíèå (ôð.).
1908
Boyle, Successors pp. 147–148.
1909
Boyle, Successors pp. 155–156.
1910
Barthold, Four Studies I pp. 114–115.
1911
Ñåðîãî êàðäèíàëà (ôð.).
1912
Boyle, Successors pp. 155–156.
1913
JR II pp. 1144–1148.
1914
RT I p. 44; JR II pp. 1106–1107.
1915
JB I pp. 205–206.
1916
JB I pp. 206–207.
1917
JB I p. 207.
1918
JR II pp. 1110–1115.
1919
Barthold, Four Studies I pp. 35–37. There was another similar incident when a Muslim was unable to repay a loan to an Uighur moneylender. The man was then told he had to convert to Buddhism or accept the local punishment of a beating. He appealed to Ogodei, who quashed the judgement, ordered the Uighur usurer beaten instead, confiscated his house and wife and gave them to the Muslim debtor.
1920
Fletcher, 'Mongols', p. 37.
1921
JB II pp. 411–426; d'Ohsson, Histoire iv pp. 64–68.
1922
JB II pp. 421–423.
1923
JB II p. 424.
1924
IAA III pp. 237–240.
1925
IAA III pp. 244–245.
1926
IAA III pp. 242–243, 254–256.
1927
IAA III pp. 252–253, 256–259.
1928
J. A. Boyle, Cambridge History of Iran v p. 327.
1929
A large amount of material on Jalal's 1225–28 campaign against the Georgians is available: IAA III pp. 269–70, 276–277; JB II pp. 426–438; Spuler, Mongolen in Iran p. 30; Minorsky, Caucasian History pp. 149–156.
1930
IAA III pp. 272–273.
1931
Ñâåðøèâøèéñÿ ôàêò (ôð.).
1932
JR I p. 296.
1933
IAA III p. 288.
1934
JR I p. 297.
1935
JB II pp. 438–439.
1936
IAA III p. 289.
1937
Lewis, Assassins; Hodgson, Secret Order; Daftary, Ismailis.
1938
Minorsky, Caucasian History p. 156.
1939
JB II pp. 441–443.
1940
IAA III pp. 258–259; Minorsky, Caucasian History pp. 102–103; Grousset, Empire pp. 260–261.
1941
IAA III pp. 297–298.
1942
IAA III p. 298.
1943
IAA III pp. 260, 277–278; George Lane, 'The Mongols in Iran,' in Daryaee, Iranian History pp. 243–70; Lane, Early Mongol Rule.
1944
JB II p. 438; IAA III p. 279; Hartmann, An-Nasir li-Din Allah pp. 85–86; Minorsky, Caucasian History p. 154.
1945
Boyle, Successors p. 43.
1946
Boyle, Successors p. 47.
1947
IAA III p. 304.
1948
IAA III p. 303.
1949
JR I p. 297; JB II p. 451; IAA III pp. 299–300; Hans Gottschalk, 'Der Bericht des Ibn Nazif al-Hamawi tiber die Schlacht von Yasycimen (15–28 Ramadan 622, '7–10 August 1230),' in Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes 56 (1960) pp. 55–67; A. C. S. Peacock, 'The Saljuq campaign against the Crimea and the Expansionist Policy of the early reign of Ala al-Din Kayqubad,' Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 16 (2006) pp. 143–149; Cahen, Pre-Ottoman Turkey pp. 120–121, 1301–33; Grousset, Empire p. 261.
1950
IAA III p. 303.
1951
d'Ohsson, Histoire III pp. 47–48.
1952
JB II pp. 453–457.
1953
IAA III pp. 305–307.
1954
JR I p. 298; Boyle, Successors p. 48.
1955
JB II p. 459; Boyle, Successors p. 48.
1956
JB II pp. 459–460; Spuler, Mongolen in Iran p. 31.
1957
Nesawi [Nasawi], Djelal ed-Din Mankobirti p. 230.
1958
Spuler, Mongolen in Iran pp. 35–38.
1959
IAA III p. 304.
1960
IAA III pp. 308–310; d'Ohsson, Histoire III pp. 47–74; Allsen, Culture and Conquest p. 84.
1961
The entire subject of the Mongol attitude to Christianity is reviewed in Pelliot, 'Les Mongols et la papaute,' Revue de I'Orient chretien 23 (1923) pp. 3–30; 24 (1924) pp. 225–235; 28 (1932) pp. 3–84. The particular references to Chormaqan are at 28 (1932) pp. 236–246.
1962
Richard Foltz, 'Ecumenical Mischief under the Mongols,' Central Asiatic Journal 43 (1999) pp. 42–69.
1963
d'Ohsson, Histoire III pp. 75–76.
1964
Suny, Making of the Georgian Nation pp. 39–44.
1965
A. G. Galstyan, trans. R. Bedrosian, 'The Conquest of Armenia by the Mongol Armies,' The Armenian Review 27 (1985) pp. 4–108; Altunian, Die Mongolen pp. 35–37; Robert Bedrosian, 'Armenia during the Seljuk and Mongol periods,' in Hovannisian, Armenian People I pp. 241–271 (esp. p. 256); Dashdondog, Mongols and the Armenians p. 43.
1966
JB II pp. 489–500; Spuler, Die Mongolen in Iran p. 34; d'Ohsson, Histoire III pp. 78–84.
1967
JR II p. 1137.
1968
Franke 8t Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 263. It was bad luck for another Jin envoy that this happened while he was at the Mongol court. In retaliation Ogodei ordered humiliation and a slow death instead of instant execution. The envoy had his beard cut off and was then sent to the front as one of the 'arrow fodder' unfortunates in the van of the Mongol army (d'Ohsson, Histoire II p. 19).
1969
d'Ohsson, Histoire II pp. 16–18.
1970
One estimate is that in the years 1230–35, if we include the simultaneous campaigns against Jalal, the Jin, Korea and the steppe Bulgars, Ogodei had forces 400,000 strong at his disposal (Martin, Rise p. 15).
1971
d'Ohsson, Histoire II pp. 19–20.
1972
Whiting, Military History p. 355.
1973
d'Ohsson, Histoire II p. 20.
1974
Vladimirtsov, Genghis pp. 112–113.
1975
SHO p. 264; SHR p. 202.
1976
Charles A. Peterson, 'Old Illusions and New Realities: Sung Foreign Policy, 1217–1234,' in Rossabi, China among Equals pp. 204–239 (at p. 221).
1977
Franke, Geschichte iv pp. 286–287.
1978
Ó àâòîðà — Han River; î÷åâèäíî, Õàíüøóé, ïðèòîê ßíöçû. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
1979
JR I p. 286.
1980
JR I p. 287.
1981
d'Ohsson, Histoire II pp. 22–24.
1982
Abel-Remusat, Nouveaux melanges p. 93.
1983
d'Ohsson, Histoire II pp. 24–25.
1984
Gabriel, Subotai p. 63.
1985
Although scholars are usually sceptical about tales of Mongol cannibalism, the outbreak of anthropophagy by desperate men in Tolui's army in 1231–32 can hardly be gainsaid (Gregory G. Guzman, 'Reports of Mongol Cannibalism in the Thirteenth-Century Latin Sources: Oriental Fact or Western Fiction?' in Westrem, ed., Discovering New Worlds pp. 31–68). See also Rachewiltz, Commentary p. 915.
1986
Boyle, Successors p. 35.
1987
Boyle, Successors p. 36.
1988
JR II pp. 1137–1138.
1989
Boyle, Successors p. 37.
1990
Boyle, Successors p. 38.
1991
JR II p. 1138.
1992
Tao, Jurchen p. 23.
1993
d'Ohsson, Histoire II pp. 25–26.
1994
d'Ohsson, Histoire II pp. 25–26.
1995
Boyle, Successors p. 39.
1996
Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 20.
1997
Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 61.
1998
Franke, Geschichte iv pp. 285–286.
1999
Abel-Remusat, Nouveaux melanges p. 95.
2000
C. Sverdrup, 'Numbers in Mongol Warfare,' Journal of Medieval Military History 8 (2010) pp. 109–117 (at p. 116).
2001
Paul J. Smith, 'Family, Landsmann and Status-Group Affinity in Refugee Mobility Strategeies: the Mongol Invasions and the Diaspora of Sichuanese Ehtes, 1230–1300,' Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 52 (1992) pp. 665–708.
2002
Peterson, 'Old Illusions,' loc. cit. p. 224; Jagchid & Symons, Peace, War and Trade pp. 134–135.
2003
Buell, Dictionary p. 138.
2004
This manifested itself particularly in the battles between Jin and Song in the twelfth century, when the aetiology of disease was thought to be connected with marmots (Perdue, China Marches West p. 47).
2005
Mote, Imperial China p. 447.
2006
SHO pp. 265–266; SHR pp. 203–205; SHC pp. 211–214.
2007
JB I pp. 38–39, 167–168; II p. 549.
2008
Fletcher, 'The Mongols,' p. 36; Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 999–1001. See also JR II p. 1138; Boyle, Successors pp. 38–39, 167–168.
2009
Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom pp. 297–298.
2010
JB II pp. 550–553; Boyle, Successors pp. 168–171.
2011
Haenisch, Zum Untergang zweier Reiche pp. 7–26.
2012
d'Ohsson Histoire, II pp. 34–35.
2013
W Abramowski, 'Die chinesischen Annalen von Ogodei und Guyiik — Ubersetzung des 2. Kapitels des Yuan Shih,' Zentralasiatische Studien 10 (1976) pp. 117–167 (at pp. 124–130).
2014
d'Ohsson, Histoire II p. 29.
2015
Jixing Pan, 'On the origin of rockets,' T'oung Pao 73 (1987) pp. 2–15.
2016
Feng Chia-Sheng, 'The Discovery and Diffusion of Gunpowder', Historical Journal 5 (1947) pp. 29–84.
2017
G. Schlegel, 'On the Invention of Firearms and Gunpowder in China', T'oung Pao 3 (1902) pp. I–II.
2018
RT II p. 450; Franke, Geschichte iv pp. 287–288; Paul ¨. Chevedden, 'The Invention of the Counterweight Trebuchet: A Study in Cultural Diffusion,' Dumbarton Oaks Papers 54 (2000) pp. 71–116. It appears that the counterweight trebuchet was first used methodically at a siege by the Byzantines in 1165. They were famously used by Richard the Lionheart at the siege of Acre in 1189–91. Double counterweight trebuchets were later used by Emperor Frederick II ('Stupor Mundi') and by Louis IX on crusade. It seems a fair inference that the Mongols, who totally outclassed Europeans in the warfare of 1237–42, would have used them by the early 1230s.
2019
d'Ohsson, Histoire II p. 32.
2020
As graphically portrayed in Chan, Fall of the Jurchen Chin.
2021
Waley, Travels of an Alchemist, p. 34.
2022
d'Ohsson, Histoire II p. 40.
2023
d'Ohsson, Histoire II p. 41.
2024
JR II p. 1139.
2025
Franke, Geschichte iv pp. 288–289.
2026
d'Ohsson, Histoire II pp. 43–44.
2027
d'Ohsson, Histoire II pp. 45–46.
2028
Franke, Geschichte iv p. 290.
2029
See below, Chapter 15.
2030
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 264.
2031
Peterson, 'Old Illusions,' loc. cit. p. 224.
2032
Franke, Geschichte iv p. 290.
2033
Franke, Geschichte v p. 137; JR II p. 1139.
2034
Barfield, Perilous Frontier p. 198.
2035
Grousset, Empire p. 259.
2036
Ó àâòîðà — Êîäåí. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
2037
Peterson, 'Old Illusions,' loc. cit. pp. 226–230.
2038
Franke, Geschichte iv pp. 291–303, 350; d'Ohsson, Histoire II pp. 78–84.
2039
Henthorn, Korea, p. 53; Kuno, Japanese Expansion ii. pp. 387–393; Hazard, Japanese Marauders.
2040
Henthorn, Korea, pp. 61–68, 93–94; G. Ledyard, 'The Mongol Campaign in Korea and the dating of the Secret History of the Mongols,' Central Asiatic Journal 9 (1964) pp. 1–22.
2041
Yule & Cordier, Marco Polo, II. pp. 180–181.
2042
Henthorn, Korea pp. 68–75, 93–99; Louis Hambis, 'Notes sur l'histoire de Coree a l'epoque mongole,' T'oung Pao 45 (1957) ðð. 151–218.
2043
Hans Sagaster, 'The History of Buddhism among the Mongols,' in Heirman & Bumbacher, Spread of Buddhism pp. 379–432; Paul Ratchnevsky, 'Die Mongolische Grosskhane und die buddhistische Kirche,' Asiatica: Festchrift F. Weller (1954) pp. 489–504.
2044
Allsen, Royal Hunt p. 23.
2045
Henthorn, Korea pp. 92–101.
2046
Allsen, Culture and Conquest p. 53; Atwood, Encyclopedia p. 319.
2047
Turrel J. Wylie, 'The First Mongol Conquest of Tibet Reinterpreted,' Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 37 (1977) pp. 103–133 (at pp. 103–106).
2048
Ñà-ïàí. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
2049
Turrel J. Wylie, 'The First Mongol Conquest of Tibet Reinterpreted,' Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 37 (1977) p. 112.
2050
SHR pp. 209–213; W Abramowski, 'Die chinesischen Annalen von Ogodei und Giiyuk,' loc. cit. pp. 117–167 (at p. 152); Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck pp. 33–39. According to Yarshater, Encyclopedia Iranica viii pp. 366–367, the Eljigidei employed by Ogodei is not the same as the one employed by Genghis to execute Jamuga and the one who destroyed Herat in 1222, but this theory of 'two Eljigideis' does not command universal assent.
2051
Buell, Dictionary p. 202.
2052
Rachewiltz, In the Service pp. 95–112.
2053
Òàêæå Áàëäæóí, Áàëäæóíñêèé äîãîâîð. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
2054
Paul D. Buell, 'Chinqai (1169–1252), Architect of Mongolian Empire,' in Kaplan & Whisenhunt, Opuscula Altaica pp. 168–186.
2055
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 373; Waley, Travels of an Alchemist p. 92; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 70.
2056
Francis Woodman Cleaves, 'A Chancellery Practice of the Mongols in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries,' Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 14 (1951) pp. 493–526; Istvan Vasary, 'The Origins of the Institution of Basqaqs,' Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 32 (1978) pp. 201–206; Vasary, 'The Golden Horde Term Daruga and its Survival in Russia,' Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 30 (1976) pp. 187–196; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 468–469.
2057
Introductory remarks are found at Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan, p. 138 and d'Ohsson, Histoire iv pp. 381–405. Deeper analysis is provided in Vasary, 'The Origin of the Institution of Basqaqs,' loc. cit. p. 323; Spuler, Mongolen in Iran pp. 40–42; Spuler, Goldene Horde p. 338; Doerfer, Turkische und mongolische Elemente iv p. 242. The institution of daruqachi was one of Genghis's innovations that survived into the Yuan empire of China. For a detailed study see Endicott-West, Mongolian Rule.
2058
For Chinqai's huge importance into the reign of Guyuk in the mid-i24os see Dawson, Mongol Mission pp. 63–67.
2059
Paul D. Buell, 'Sino-Khitan administration in Mongol Bukhara,' Journal of Asian History 13 (1979) pp. 121–151.
2060
Rachewiltz, In the Service pp. 122–128 (esp. p. 123).
2061
SHO p. 254; SHR p. 195; Spuler, Mongolen in Iran pp. 40–42; Lane, Daily Life p. 62; Christian, History of Russia I p. 415.
2062
Rachewiltz, In the Service pp. 124–125.
2063
Two studies of Yelu by Rachewiltz are fundamental: 'Yeh-lii Ch'u-ts'ai (1189–1243): Buddhist Idealist and Confueian Statesman,' in Wright & Twitchett, Confueian Personalities pp. 189–216 and the entry in In the Service, op. cit. pp. 136–175.
2064
Rachewiltz, 'Yeh-lu… Buddhist Idealist,' loc. cit. pp. 192–193; Rachewiltz, In the Service pp. 139–140.
2065
Rachewiltz, 'The Hsi-Yu-lu by Yeh-Lu Ch'u Ts'ai,' Monumenta Serica 21 (1962) pp. 1–128 (esp. pp. 17–37).
2066
Wittfogel & Feng, Liao pp. 749–751.
2067
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 9–10.
2068
Rachewiltz, 'Yeh-lu… Buddhist Idealist,' loc. cit. pp. 194–195.
2069
Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom p. 238. Some scholars have gone the other way and claim that Yelu has been vastly overrated (Buell, Dictionary pp. 287–289).
2070
Allsen, Culture and Conquest pp. 177–179; Buell, Dictionary pp. 133–134.
2071
Grousset, Empire p. 321. The 'horseback' quote is notoriously migratory, having been attributed to a number of sages during Chinese history.
2072
×åñòíûõ íàìåðåíèé (ëàò.).
2073
H. F. Schurmann, 'Mongolian tributary practices of the thirteenth century,' Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 19 (1956) pp. 304–389.
2074
Rachewiltz, 'Yeh-lu… Buddhist Idealist,' loc. cit. p. 202; Rachewiltz, In the Service pp. 151–152.
2075
Allsen, Imperialism pp. 144–148.
2076
Áûò. 16:12.
2077
Rachewiltz, 'Yeh-lu… Buddhist Idealist,' loc. cit. pp. 212–213.
2078
Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 159; P. Ratchnevsky, 'Sigi-qutuqu,' Central Asiatic Journal 10 (1965) pp. 87–110 (at p. 87).
2079
Rachewiltz, 'Yeh-lu… Buddhist Idealist,' loc. cit. p. 202.
2080
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 378.
2081
J. Masson Smith, 'Mongol and nomadic taxation,' Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 30 (1970) pp. 46–85. For the unsystematic fiscal approach of the Mongols see A. K. S. Lambton, 'Mongol fiscal administration in Persia,' Studia Islamica 44 (1986) pp. 79–99; 45 (1987) pp. 97–123.
2082
Morgan, Mongols pp. 100–103.
2083
Kwanten, Imperial Nomads pp. 128–129.
2084
d'Ohsson, Histoire II p. 63.
2085
Some of the administrative implications of this are teased out in F. W Cleaves, 'A Chancellery Practice of the Mongols in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries,' loc. cit. pp. 493–526.
2086
Rachewiltz, 'Yeh-lu… Buddhist Idealist,' loc. cit. p. 205.
2087
Rachewiltz, In the Service pp. 60–69.
2088
Farquhar, Government of China p. 45; Gernet, Daily Life p. 65; Fairbank & Goldman, China pp. 95–107; Elman, Civil Examinations.
2089
Makino Shuji, 'Transformation of the Shih-jen in the late Chin and early Yuan,' Acta Asiatica 45 (1983) pp. 1–26.
2090
Ch'i-ch'ing Hsiao, 'Yen Shih, 1182–1240,' Papers on Far Eastern History 33 (1986) pp. 113–128 (at pp. 119–122).
2091
Rachewiltz, 'Yeh-lu… Buddhist Idealist,' loc. cit. p. 202; Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 151.
2092
Rachewiltz, 'Yeh-lu… Buddhist Idealist,' loc. cit. p. 202; Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 165.
2093
Franke & Twichett, Cambridge History p. 377.
2094
On this subject in general and its implications see Nikolay N. Kradin, 'Nomadic Empires: Origin, Rise and Decline,' in Kradin et al, Nomadic Pathways pp. 73–87; Kradin, 'Nomadism, Evolution and World Systems: Pastoral Societies and Theories of Historical Development,' Journal of World-Systems Research 8 (2002) pp. 363–388.
2095
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 377.
2096
Thomas T. Allsen, 'Sharing out the Empire: Apportioning Lands under the Empire,' in Khazanov & Wink, Nomads and the Sedentary World pp. 172–190.
2097
Jackson, Mongols and the West p. 291.
2098
JB I pp. 209–210, 213–215.
2099
Rachewiltz In the Service p. 160.
2100
Rachewiltz In the Service p. 160.
2101
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 377.
2102
Abel-Remusat, Nouveaux melanges II pp. 64–68.
2103
For Shih-mo Hsien-te-pu see Rachewiltz, In the Service pp. 147–148, 160; Waley, Travels of an Alchemist p. 53. For Buyruq Qaya (1197–1265) see In the Service pp. 480–481; Buell, Dictionary p. 128; Buell, A-Z of the Mongol Empire p. 40.
2104
Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 165.
2105
For the latter phase of Yelu's relationship with Ogodei see Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 12–24; Tanner, China: A History I pp. 239–280.
2106
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 378.
2107
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 380.
2108
Rachewiltz, 'Yeh-lu… Buddhist Idealist,' loc. cit. p. 208.
2109
Rachewiltz, 'Yeh-lu… Buddhist Idealist,' loc. cit. p. 208.
2110
 ðîññèéñêîé èñòîðèîãðàôèè âòîðîé ñûí Óãýäýÿ — Ãîäàí, Êîäàí, Êóäýí. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
2111
Rachewiltz, 'Yeh-lu… Buddhist Idealist,' loc. cit. p. 215; Rachewiltz, In the Service pp. 105–106, 125.
2112
Michael Weiers, Geschichte der Mongolen p. 76.
2113
Gregory G. Guzman, 'European Captives and Craftsmen among the Mongols, 1231–1255,' The Historian 72 (2010) pp. 122–150.
2114
Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck pp. 182–183; Pelliot, Recherches pp. 161–164; J. Schneider, Metz pp. 191–192.
2115
For Beshbaliq see JB I pp. 271–272; Barthold, Four Studies I pp. 114–115. For Kemkemjek see Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations iv part 2 p. 584.
2116
Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck pp. 144–145.
2117
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches II p. 331.
2118
JB I pp. 236–239; JR II pp. 1140–1141; Boyle, Successors pp. 61–62; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 123; Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I pp. 166–167; Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck pp. 209–213, 221; Dawson, Mongol Mission pp. 156, 183–184. See also Phillips, Mongols pp. 96–103.
2119
Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations iv part 2 pp. 582–583.
2120
Äðóãîé âàðèàíò íàçâàíèÿ — «Äâîðåö äåñÿòè òûñÿ÷ ëåò áëàãîäåíñòâèÿ». — Ïðèì. ïåð.
2121
Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck pp. 209–210.
2122
See the essays by Hans-Georg Huttel in Hirmer Verlag, Dschingis Khan pp. 133–137, 140–146.
2123
Morgan & Jackson, Rubruck pp. 178–179; Pelliot, Recherches pp. 161–164; Durand-Guedy, Turko-Mongol Rulers p. 232; Shiraishi Noriyuki, 'Avraga Sita: the "Great Ordu" of Genghis Khan,' in Komaroff, Beyond the Legacy pp. 83–93 (at pp. 89–90).
2124
Thomas T. Allsen, 'Command Performances: Entertainers in the Mongolian Empire," Russian History 28 (2001) pp. 37–46.
2125
J. A. Boyle, 'The Seasonal Residences of the Great Khan Ogodei," Central Asiatic Journal 16 (1972) pp. 125–131, reproduced in Hazai & Zieme, Sprache, Geschichte und Kultur pp. 145–151.
2126
Eva Becker, 'Karakorum — Bukinic vs. Kiselev," Zentralasiatische Studien 37 (2008) pp. 9–32.
2127
SHC pp. 227–228; SHR pp. 217–218.
2128
Latham, Travels of Marco Polo pp. 150–155.
2129
Boyle, Successors pp. 62–64.
2130
For the Pony Express see Settle, Saddles and Spurs. See also Alberto E. Minetti, 'Efficiency of Equine Express Postal Systems', Nature 426 (2003) pp. 785–786.
2131
As with the tumens, these notional figures were not always attained. One study finds the sources providing figures ranging anywhere between fifteen and five hundred horses at the ready, depending on the nature and location of the posts (Lane, Daily Life p. 121).
2132
Olbricht, Postwesen in China pp. 36–41, 66, 87.
2133
Ricci, Marco Polo pp. 152–157.
2134
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan pp. 180–181: Silverstein, Postal Systems.
2135
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan pp. 181–183.
2136
Doerfer, Tiirkische und mongolische Elemente I pp. 102–107; Boyle, Successors p. 219.
2137
Spuler, Mongolen in Iran pp. 349–350, 422–425.
2138
Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan p. 186.
2139
JB I pp. 197–200; Boyle, Successors pp. 65–66; d'Ohsson, Histoire II pp. 84–86.
2140
JB I pp. 197–200; Boyle, Successors pp. 65–66; d'Ohsson, Histoire II pp. 86–87.
2141
Thomas T. Allsen, 'Ogedei and Alcohol," Mongolian Studies 29 (2007) pp. 3–12; Boyle, Successors p. 188; Lane, Daily Life p. 163.
2142
Rachewiltz, In the Service pp. 102–104.
2143
Boyle, Successors pp. 19, 180–181, 201; Fletcher, 'The Mongols," pp. 37–38.
2144
JB I pp. 239–244; Boyle, Successors p. 180; Hambis, Le chapitre CVII du Yuan Che pp. 3–4. For more on Koden and Shiremun see Buell, Dictionary pp. 184, 243.
2145
Devin DeWeese, 'Islamization in the Mongol Empire," in Di Cosmo, Frank & Golden, Chinggisid Age pp. 120–134.
2146
Kohlberg, Ibn Tawus p. 10; Lambton, Continuity and Change p. 249.
2147
Schurmann, Economic Structure pp. 66–67.
2148
RT II p. 330; Boyle, Successors pp. 65, 120; Franke, Geschichte iv p. 305; d'Ohsson, Histoire II p. 87.
2149
JR II ð. 1148.
2150
Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 13; J. A. Boyle, 'The Burial Place of the Great Khan Ogedei," Acta Orientalia 32 (1970) pp. 45–50.
2151
Pelliot & Hambis, Campagnes p. 244.
2152
Boyle, Successors pp. 54–55.
2153
For Song expertise on this see Needham, Science and Civilization iv part 3 pp. 678–687; Atwood, Encyclopedia p. 509.
2154
Denis Sinor, 'The Mongols in the West," Journal of Asian History 33 (1999) pp. 1–44.
2155
Hyland, Medieval Warhorse p. 131; Doerfer, Tiirkische und mongolische Elemente I pp. 387–391.
2156
Vernadsky, The Mongols in Russia p. 49; Moss, History of Russia p. 69.
2157
Buell, Dictionary pp. 255–258.
2158
Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 57.
2159
Moss, History of Russia p. 71. The waspish Russian historian was Nikolai Karamzin, who wrote a twelve volume history of Russia in the early nineteenth century. For an analysis of Batu see Spuler, Goldene Horde pp. 10–32. See also Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I pp. 88–89; Boyle, Successors p. 107; T. Allsen, 'The Princes of the Left Hand,' Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 5 (1987) pp. 5–40 (esp. p. 10).
2160
JR II p. 1164.
2161
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 308–309, d'Ohsson; Histoire, II p. 111; Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 22.
2162
Spuler, Goldene Horde p. 16.
2163
JR II pp. 809–813; Peter Jackson, Delhi Sultanate pp. 39, 104.
2164
Thomas T. Allsen, 'Prelude to the Western Campaign: Mongol Military Operations in the Volga-Ural region, 1217–1237,' Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 3 (1983) pp. 5–24 (at pp. 10–13); Vernadsky, Ancient Russia pp. 222–228.
2165
Istvan Zimonyi, 'The Volga Bulghars between Wind and Water, 1220–1236,' Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 46 (1993) pp. 347–355.
2166
Spuler, Goldene Horde p. 15.
2167
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 306–308; Allsen, 'Prelude,' loc. cit. pp. 14–18; d'Ohsson, Histoire II p. 15.
2168
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 309.
2169
Gockenjan & Sweeney, Mongolensturm p. 104.
2170
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 310.
2171
Detailed linguistic analysis of some of the place-names mentioned in the sources can be found in Donald Ostrowski, 'City Names of the Western Steppes at the Time of the Mongol Invasion,' Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 61 (1998) pp. 465–475.
2172
Allsen, 'Prelude,' loc. cit. pp. 19–24.
2173
Gerald Mako, 'The Islamization of the Volga Bulghars: A Question Reconsidered,' Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 18 (2011) pp. 199–223.
2174
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 311.
2175
Pelliot, 'A propos des Comans,' Journal Asiatique 208 (1920) pp. 125–185; Barthold, Histoire des turcs pp. 89–91; Peter B. Golden, 'Cumanica IV: The Tribes of the Cuman-Qipchags,' Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 9 (1997) pp. 99–122; Golden, 'Religion among the Qipchags of Medieval Eurasia,' Central Asiatic Journal 42 (1998) pp. 180–237; Golden, 'War and Warfare in the pre-Chinggisid Steppes of Eurasia,' in Di Cosmo, Warfare pp. 105–172; Standen & Powers, Frontiers in Question.
2176
JB II pp. 553–554; Boyle, Successors pp. 58–59.
2177
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 311.
2178
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 312.
2179
Pelliot, 'A propos des Comans,' loc. cit. pp. 166–167. For Bujek see JB II p. 269.
2180
Christian, History I p. 361.
2181
Mitchell & Forbes, Chronicle of Novgorod p. 81.
2182
Fennell, Crisis pp. 69–70.
2183
'Vladimir-Suzdalia,' in Langer, Medieval Russia pp. 245–248.
2184
Fennell, Crisis p. 71–75; Martin, Medieval Russia p. 126.
2185
Fennell, Crisis p. 85, using a figure arrived at by the Russian historian S. M. Soloviev.
2186
Grekov & Yakubovski, Horde d'Or p. 200.
2187
Spuler, Goldene Horde p. 17; Vernadsky, Source Book I p. 45; d'Ohsson, Histoire II pp. 113–115.
2188
Zenkovsky, Epics, Chronicles and Tales p. 202.
2189
RT II p. 327; Boyle, Successors p. 59; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 313.
2190
The sources mention Yaroslavl, Volzhsky, Gorodets, Kostroma, Galich, Pereslavl, Rostov, Yuryev-Polsky, Dmitrov, Tver, Kashin, Volok, Torzhok and Ksnyatin. (Mitchell & Forbes, Chronicle of Novgorod p. 83; d'Ohsson, Histoire II pp. 116–117).
2191
Mitchell & Forbes, Chronicle of Novgorod pp. 82–83; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 315; Fennell, Crisis p. 80.
2192
Spuler, Goldene Horde p. 18; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 313–314, 317; Fennell, Crisis pp. 80–81; Vernadsky, Mongols and Russia p. 51.
2193
Vernadsky, Kievan Russia p. 199. See also (for an approach via archaeology) Brisbane et al, Medieval Novgorod (2012).
2194
Vernadsky, Kievan Russia p. 311.
2195
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 313.
2196
Mitchell & Forbes, Chronicle of Novgorod pp. 83–84; d'Ohsson, Histoire II p. 117; Fennell, Crisis p. 81.
2197
Boyle, Successors p. 60; Grekov & Yakubovski, Horde d'Or p. 202; Moss, History of Russia p. 69.
2198
Hyland, Medieval Warhorse p. 127.
2199
Boyle, Successors pp. 60–61; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 316–317. For the Georgian defeat see Altunian, Mongolen und ihre Eroberungen pp. 33–41; Spuler, Mongolen in Iran pp. 34–35, 41–42; Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 41.
2200
Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 24.
2201
Pelliot, 'A propos des Comans,' loc. cit. p. 169.
2202
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 322; Vasary, Cumans and Tatars p. 81.
2203
Pentti Aalto, 'Swells of the Mongol Storm around the Baltic,' Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 36 (1982) pp. 5–15.
2204
JR II pp. 1170–1171. Another expedition, under Batu's brother Shinqor in 1242–43, was said to have penetrated so far north that they met people with fair hair and there was just one hour of night (Wolff, Mongolen oder Tartaren pp. 148, 383).
2205
Òàê ó àâòîðà. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
2206
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 317; Fennell, Crisis pp. 81–82.
2207
Mitchell & Forbes, Chronicle of Novgorod pp. 84–85.
2208
Fennell, Crisis p. 104.
2209
Fennell, Crisis p. 104.
2210
«Äàëüøå íåêóäà» (ëàò.), â äàííîì ñëó÷àå «âåðõ íàãëîñòè».
2211
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 307, 317–318; Grekov & Yakubovski, Horde d'Orpp. 204, 305; Fennell, Crisis p. 82; Vernadsky, Mongols and Russia p. 52.
2212
David B. Miller, 'The Kievan Principality on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion: An Inquiry into Current Historical Research and Interpretation,' Harvard Ukranian Studies 10 (1986) pp. 215–240; Pelenski, Contest for the Legacy; Soloviev, Shift Northward. The quote is from Fennell, Crisis p. 82.
2213
Franklin & Shepard, Emergence of Rus pp. 2, 13, 279, 282, 287.
2214
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 318.
2215
Fennell, Crisis p. 83.
2216
Öåðêîâü Óñïåíèÿ Ïðåñâÿòîé Áîãîðîäèöû, ïåðâàÿ êàìåííàÿ öåðêîâü. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
2217
Vernadsky, Mongols and Russia p. 52.
2218
Ðóññêàÿ ïðàâîñëàâíàÿ öåðêîâü ïî÷èòàåò äåíü ïàìÿòè ñâÿòîãî Íèêîëàÿ 19 äåêàáðÿ, Ðèìñêî-êàòîëè÷åñêàÿ öåðêîâü — 6 äåêàáðÿ. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
2219
Boyle, Successors p. 69.
2220
Dawson, Mongol Mission pp. 29–30.
2221
Wiener, Anthology of Russian Literature I pp. 105–106.
2222
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 319–323; Spuler, Goldene Horde pp. 20–25; Vernadsky, Mongols and Russia pp. 52–58; d'Ohsson, Histoire II p. 122; Dimnik, Dynasty of Chernigov pp. 331–358.
2223
SHR pp. 206–207.
2224
Skelton, Marston & Painter, Vinland Map pp. 76–77.
2225
Christian, History I p. 412.
2226
SHR pp. 206–207; SHC pp. 215–216; Boyle, Successors p. 138.
2227
Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 1012–1013.
2228
Ãîñóäàðñòâåííûå èíòåðåñû (ôð.).
2229
Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 1015–1016.
2230
Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 1017–1019.
2231
P. Ratchnevsky, 'Die Rechtsverhaltnisse bei den Mongolen im 12.-13. Jahrhundert,' Central Asiatic Journal 31 (1987) pp. 64–110 (at pp. 89–90).
2232
Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 1012–1013, 1015–1016; d'Ohsson, Histoire II p. 627.
2233
JB II p. 587; Boyle, Successors pp. 138, 204, 212; Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck pp. 144–145; Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 59.
2234
Stevenson, Chronicle of Melrose, p. 86; Jackson, Mongols and the West p. 65.
2235
Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora III pp. 488–489; Buell, Dictionary p. 161.
2236
Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora III pp. 488–489; IV pp. 76–78, 112–119.
2237
Jackson, Mongols and the West p. 61.
2238
For Prester John and the Mongols see Yule, Cathay I pp. 173–182; Yule & Cordier, Ser Marco Polo I pp. 226–245; David Morgan, 'Prester John and the Mongols,' in Beckingham & Hamilton, Prester John pp. 159–170. Marco Polo identified Prester John not with Genghis but with Toghril (Ong Khan) (ibid. pp. 165–166). Other accounts seem to have conflated Genghis and his deadly enemy Quqluq. There were many variants on the Prester John theme. One idea was that the turmoil in Russia was because 'Prester John's' armies had revolted against him (Aubrey de Trois-Fontaines, Chronica in Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores 23 p. 942). Another was that the Mongols were the legendary giants Gog and Magog and that the Muslims should fear them even more than the Christians did. See David Cook, 'Apocalyptic Incidents during the Mongol Invasion,' in Brandes & Schmieder, Endzeiten pp. 293–312; C. Burnett, 'An Apocryphal Letter from the Arabic Philosopher al-Kindi to Theodore, Frederick Il's Astrologer concerning Gog and Magog, the Enclosed Nations and the Scourge of the Mongols,' Viator 15 (1984) pp. 151–167.
2239
Rodenberg, Epistolae I pp. 178–179; Denis Sinor, 'Les relations entre les Mongols et l'Europe jusqu'a la mort d'Arghoun et de Bela TV,' Journal of World History 3 (1956) pp. 39–62 (at p. 40).
2240
C. W. Connell, 'Western Views on the Origin of the "Tartars": An Example of the Influence of Myth in the Second Half of the Thirteenth Century,' Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies 3 (1973) pp. 115–137 (at pp. 117–118); Axel Klopprogge, 'Das Mongolenbild im Abendland,' in Conermann & Kusber, Mongolen im Asien pp. 8–101; Kloprogge, Ursprung und Auspragung pp. 155–159; Aubrey de Trois-Fontaines, Chronica in Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores 23 p. 911.
2241
Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores 32 p. 208; Dorrie, Drei Texte zur Geschichte der Ungarn und Mongolen, pp. 125–202 (at pp. 165–182); Denis Sinor, 'Les relations entre les Mongols et l'Europe,' loc. cit pp. 39–62 (at p. 43); Antoine Mostaert & F. W Cleaves, 'Trois documents mongols des archives secretes vaticanes,' Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 15 (1952) pp. 419–506.
2242
Louis Hambis, 'Saint Louis et les Mongols,' Journal Asiatique 258 (1970) pp. 25-ÇÇ; Richard, Saint Louis pp. 160–180; Goff, Saint Louis pp. 552–555; Peter Jackson, 'The Crusades of 1239–1241 and their aftermath,' Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 50 (1987) pp. 32–60. Nevertheless Louis did later send out spies and envoys who made contact with the Mongols and brought back much important intelligence. See Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora v pp. 37–38; vi pp. 113–116; Richard, Simon de St Quentin pp. 94–117; G. C. Guzman, 'Simon of St Quentin and the Dominican Mission to the Mongol Baiju: A Reappraisal,' Speculum 46 (1971) pp. 232–249.
2243
For full details see Sumption, Albigensian Crusade.
2244
Abulafia, Frederick II pp. 346–347.
2245
Christiansen, Northern Crusades pp. 126–130; Fonnesberg-Schmidt, Popes and the Baltic Crusades.
2246
Richard Spence, 'Gregory IX and the Attempted Expeditions to the Latin Empire of Constantinople: The Crusade for the Union of the Latin and Greek Churches,' Journal of Medieval History 5 (1979) pp. 163–176; Christiansen, Northern Crusades pp. 133–134.
2247
Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores 10 p. 59; 17 p. 294; Peter Jackson, 'The Crusade against the Mongols, 1241,' Journal of Ecclesiastical History 42. (1991) pp. 1–18.
2248
Jackson, Mongols and the West p. 67.
2249
Theiner, Vetera Monumenta I pp. 184–185; Gockenjan & Sweeney, Mongolensturm p. 169; Jackson, Mongols and the West p. 66.
2250
For biographies of Frederick see Abulafia, Frederick II; Kantorowicz, Frederick the Second; Wolf, Stupor Mundi; Sturner, Friedrich II.
2251
Maalouf, Crusades through Arab Eyes p. 230.
2252
Aubrey de Trois-Fontaines, Chronica in Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores 23 p. 943.
2253
Detwiler, Germany p. 43.
2254
Bezzola, Mongolen in abendlandischer Sicht p. 76.
2255
Bjorn K. U. Weiler, Henry III pp. 86–94.
2256
Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores 1 pp. 765, 796, 821–823, 826; 2 pp. 2, 102, 105.
2257
Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora iv pp. 115–118; Gockenjan & Sweeney, Mongolensturm p. 253.
2258
 äàííîì ñëó÷àå àâòîð èñïîëüçóåò èìÿ Qadan. Êàäàí — ìëàäøèé ñûí Óãýäýÿ. Âòîðîé ñûí Óãýäýÿ ïî ñòàðøèíñòâó — Ãîäàí (Êîäàí, Êóòàí, Êóäýí, ó àâòîðà ðàíåå — Êîäåí). Ñòàðøèé ñûí — Ãóþê. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
2259
Nothing is more controversial than the issue of numbers during the Mongol invasion of Europe. Modern historians seem to compensate for the medieval chroniclers' habit of multiplying numbers tenfold by a compensating 'downsizing'. The truth is probably somewhere between the two extremes, but at the lower end. Estimates for the Mongol army in Poland range from the absurdly high 100,000 (far greater than the entire army in Russia and Eastern Europe) to an absurdly low 8,000 operating in Poland. Some Polish historians, doubtless wishing to minimise a national humiliation, have only 2,000 (!) Poles at the battle of Liegnitz. Others have the timbers at Liegnitz approximately equal at 8,000 each. The most likely figure is somewhere around 20,000 (or slightly fewer) Mongols and 25,000 (or slightly fewer) Poles; see Eric Hildinger, 'The Battle of Liegnitz,' Military History, June 1997. For a convincing argument on Mongol numbers (and the 20,000 mark at Liegnitz) see John Masson Smith, 'Mongol Manpower and the Persian Population,' Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 18 (1975) pp. 271–299 (at p. 272). Denis Sinor, 'The Mongols in the West,' loc. cit. accepts even higher numbers. The 'downsizers' are best represented by David Morgan (Mongols p. 88) and Carl Sverdrup, 'Numbers in Mongol Warfare', Journal of Medieval Military History 8 (2010) pp. 109–117.
2260
Lerski, Historical Dictionary of Poland pp. 309–310.
2261
Iwamura Shinobu, 'Mongol Invasion of Poland in the Thirteenth Century,' Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko 10 (1938) pp. 103–157.
2262
Schmilewski, Wahlstatt 1241 35–75.
2263
C. W Connell, 'Western views of the origin of the "Tartars",' loc. cit. pp. 115–137 (esp. pp. 117–118); Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora iv pp. 111–112, 118; J. J. Saunders, 'Matthew Paris and the Mongols,' in Sandquist & Powicke, Essays pp. 116–132; Anna Rutkowska-Plachcinska, 'L'image du danger tatar dans les sources polonaises des XHIe-XIVe siecles,' in Universite de Provence, Histoire et societe pp. 14–32.
2264
Strakosch-Grassman, Mongolen in Mitteleuropa p. 42; Spuler, Goldene Horde p. 22. Some sources insist on one, despite much better evidence to the contrary. See Skelton, Marston & Painter, Vinland Map p. 80; Maron, Legnica 1241 pp. 123–131.
2265
RT II p. 411.
2266
Davies, God's Playground I p. 71.
2267
Strakosch-Grassmann, Mongolen in Mitteleuropa p. 39.
2268
Denis Sinor, 'On Mongol Strategy,' Proceedings of the Fourth East Asian Affairs Conference (1971) pp. 238–249 (at p. 245).
2269
Strakosch-Grassmann, Mongolen in Mitteleuropa p. 43.
2270
This story and many others, which belong more to the realm of the historical novel than sober history, is recounted by the fifteenth-century Polish monk Jan Diugosz. Michael, Jan Dlugosz.
2271
JB I pp. 225–226; RT II pp. 325–326; Boyle, Successors pp. 56–57.
2272
Hildinger, 'The Battle of Liegnitz,' loc. cit.; Michael, Jan Dlugosz.
2273
Strakosch-Grassmann, Mongolen in Mitteleuropa pp. 37–52; Oman, Art of War pp. 328–330.
2274
Ñïàñàéñÿ, êòî ìîæåò (ôð.).
2275
d'Ohsson, Histoire II pp. 124–126.
2276
Skelton, Marston & Painter, Vinland Map pp. 80–81; Wolff, Geschichte p. 189.
2277
Schmilewski, Wahlstatt 1241 pp. 87–108.
2278
Arnold, Hochmeister p. 27; Jurgen Sarnowsky, 'The Teutonic Order Confronts Mongols and Turks,' in Barber, Military Orders pp. 253–262; Urban, Teutonic Knights.
2279
Sophia Menache, 'Tartars, Jews, Saracens and the Jewish-Mongol "plot" of 1241,' History 81 (1996) pp. 319–342; Israeljacob Yuval, 'Jewish Messianic Expectations towards 1240 and Christian Reactions,' in Shafer & Cohen, Toward the Millennium pp. 105–121, esp. pp. 119–120.
2280
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 320–322.
2281
Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores 9 p. 597; Strakosch-Grassmann, Mongolen in Mitteleuropa pp. 143, 189.
2282
Vernadsky, Mongols and Russia p. 56.
2283
Liddell Hart, Great Captains Unveiled p. 24.
2284
Brundage, Henry of Livonia p. 205; Gockenjan & Sweeney, Mongolensturm p. 252; Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 16.
2285
Strakosch-Grassmann, Mongolen in Mitteleuropa pp. 50–67; d'Ohsson, Histoire II pp. 127–129.
2286
A. N. J. Hollander, 'The Great Hungarian Plain: A European Frontier Area,' Comparative Studies in Society and History 3 (1961) pp. 74–88, 155–169.
2287
Sinor, Hungary pp. 48–64.
2288
Kontler, Hungary pp. 40–49.
2289
Sinor, Hungary pp. 58–59.
2290
The 800th anniversary of her birth produced a plethora of biographies: Albrecht & Atzbach, Elisabeth von Thuringen; Ohler, Elisabeth von Thiiringen; Zippert & Jost, Hingabe und Heiterkeit; Reber, Elizabeth von Thiiringen.
2291
Reich, Select Documents pp. 637–642; Roman, Austria-Hungary p. 480.
2292
Sinor, Hungary pp. 57–60; James Ross Sweeney, 'The Decretal Intellecto and the Hungarian Golden Bull of 1222,' in Album Elemer Mdlyusz (1976) pp. 89–96.
2293
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum I Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 142–143; Szentpetery, Scriptores rerum Hungaricarum ii. p.555.
2294
Engel, Realm of St Stephen pp. 91–93.
2295
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum,' Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 144–145; Martyn C. Rady, Nobility, Land and Service pp. 179–182.
2296
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum,' Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 144–147.
2297
Engel, Realm of St Stephen p. 98.
2298
Nora Berend, At the Gate of Christendom pp. 68–73; Robert C. Wolff, 'The "Second Bulgarian Empire": Its Origin and History to 1204,' Speculum 24 (1949) pp. 167–206; A. Lognon, 'Les Toucy en Orient et en Italie au XHIe siecle,' Bulletin de la Societe des sciences historiques et naturelles de I'Yonne 96 (1957) pp. 33–43.
2299
Ñîãëàñíî îòå÷åñòâåííîé èñòîðèîãðàôèè, äàòà ñðàæåíèÿ — 31 ìàÿ 1223 ãîäà. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
2300
Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores 9 p. 640; Gockenjam & Sweeney, Mongolensturm pp. 142–145, 238.
2301
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum,' Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 138–139.
2302
Berend, At the Gate pp. 85–95.
2303
Ferdinandy, Tschingis Khan pp. 139–144.
2304
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum I Epistola in Miserabile Carmen p. 141.
2305
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum I Epistola in Miserabile Carmen p. 141.
2306
Sinor, Hungary p. 69.
2307
Veszpremy & Schaer, Simon of Keza, p. 157.
2308
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum I Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 140–141, 154–155.
2309
Sinor, Hungary p. 70.
2310
Veszpremy & Schaer, Simon of Keza pp. 145–147.
2311
Kosztolnyik, Hungary pp. 151–216; Bezzola, Mongolen in abend-landischer Sicht pp. 76–81.
2312
Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora iv pp. 119–120.
2313
Gockenjan & Sweeney, Mongolensturm pp. 150, 237.
2314
Sinor, Hungary p. 70.
2315
Strakosch-Grassmann, Mongolen in Mitteleuropa, pp. 9, 42; Bezzola, Mongolen in abendlandischer Sicht p. 52; Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora iv pp. 270–277 (esp. p. 274).
2316
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum I Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 156–157, 164–165.
2317
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum I Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 156–159; Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora iv pp. 112–119.
2318
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum I Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 172–175.
2319
Thomas T. Allsen, 'Cumanica IV: The Cumano-Qipcaq Clans and Tribes,' Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 9 (1997) pp. 97–122 (at pp. 102–105); Gockenjan & Sweeney, Mongolensturm pp. 150–159,176–179.
2320
Kubinyi, Anfange Ofens pp. 16–17.
2321
Sinor, Hungary pp. 70–71.
2322
D. O. Morgan, 'The Mongol Armies in Persia,' Der Islam 56 (1976) pp. 81–96; Chambers, Devil's Horsemen p. 93.
2323
Liddell Hart, Great Captains Unveiled p. 25.
2324
Some idea of the terrain can be gathered from Florin Curta, 'Transylvania around ad 1000,' in Urbanczyk, Europe around the Year 1000 pp. 141–165. Because of the confusing chronology used in many of the primary sources, it is not clear if the sack of Alba Iulia ('the white city') in Transylvania happened at this point, or whether it was bypassed and the Mongols then doubled back to raze it in the period of total destruction after Mohi. For more on the role of Transylvania during the Mongol invasion see Laszlo Makkai, 'Transylvania in the Medieval Hungarian Kingdom (896–1526),' in Kopeczi, Transylvania I ðð. 331–524. For a more modern description of Alba Iulia see Leigh Fermor, Betweeen the Woods and the Water p. 138.
2325
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum,' Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 161–162.
2326
Peric et al, Thomas of Split, History p. 259; J. R. Sweeney, "'Spurred on by the Fear of Death": Refugees and Displaced Persons during the Mongol Invasion of Hungary,' in Gervers & Schlepp, Nomadic Diplomacy pp. 34–62 (at p. 42).
2327
Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 24.
2328
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum,' Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 166–167.
2329
Strakosch-Grassmann, Mongolen in Mitteleuropa, pp. 91–98, 153–158; Sedlar, East Central Europe pp. 210–221.
2330
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum I Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 200–201.
2331
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum I Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 178–179; d'Ohsson, Histoire II pp. 141–142.
2332
Grousset, Empire p. 266.
2333
Grousset, Empire pp. 594–595. On this point see also Strakosch-Grassmann, Mongolen in Mitteleuropa pp. 78–79.
2334
Grousset, Empire pp. 594–595. On this point see also Strakosch-Grassmann, Mongolen in Mitteleuropa pp. 99–101.
2335
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum I Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 168–169.
2336
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum I Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 168–169.
2337
Hristo Dimitrov, 'Uber die bulgarisch-ungarischen Beziehungen, 1218–1255,' Bulgarian Historical Review 25 (1997) pp. 3–27 (at pp. 16–19); Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora iv pp. 113, 179; Gockenjan & Sweeney, Mongolensturm pp. 149–150; Strakosch-Grassmann, Mongolen in Mitteleuropa pp. 12–13, 91.
2338
Hristo Dimitrov, 'Uber die bulgarisch-ungarischen Beziehungen, 1218–1255,' Bulgarian Historical Review 25 (1997) pp. 3–27 (at pp. 16–19); Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora iv pp. 113, 179; Gockenjan & Sweeney, Mongolensturm pp. 149–150; Strakosch-Grassmann, Mongolen in Mitteleuropa pp. 78–79.
2339
Carey, Warfare pp. 124–128. But extreme caution is needed in this debate. Some of the very best sources are adamant that the Mongols were outnumbered two to one; see JB I p. 270; Gockenjan & Sweeney, Mongolensturm p. 251.
2340
Carey, Warfare pp. 124–128. But extreme caution is needed in this debate. Some of the very best sources are adamant that the Mongols were outnumbered two to one; see JB I p. 270; Gockenjan & Sweeney, Mongolensturm p. 240.
2341
JB i. pp. 270–271; Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum I Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 180–181.
2342
Andrew had four sons, one born posthumously. Apart from Bela (1206–1276), there was Coloman (1208–1241), who was ruler of Halych in 1214–1221 and, after 1226, governor of Slavonia; a short-lived namesake Andrew (1210–1234) and a fourth son, Stephen (1236–1272), born after King Andrew's death.
2343
Skelton, Marston & Painter, Vinland Map pp. 80–81; Pelliot, Horde d'Or p. 153.
2344
Skelton, Marston & Painter, Vinland Map pp. 82–83.
2345
Peric et al, Thomas of Split, History pp. 261–273.
2346
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum,' Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 182–183.
2347
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I. p. 331; d'Ohsson, Histoire II p. 142.
2348
For the use of firearms at Mohi see Chase, Firearms p. 58; Carey, Warfare pp. 124–128; James Riddick Partington, Greek Fire p. 250.
2349
Strakosch-Grassmann, Mongolen in Mitteleuropa pp. 84–87; d'Ohsson, Histoire II pp. 143–144.
2350
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 331–332.
2351
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum I Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 184–185.
2352
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum I Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 184–185.
2353
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum I Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 186–187.
2354
Peric et al, Thomas of Split, History p. 293; Laszlo Koszta, 'Un prelat francais en Hongrie: Bertalan, eveque de Pecs, 1219–1251,' Cahiers d'Etudes Hongroises 8 (1996) pp. 71–96.
2355
Vambery, Hungary pp. 138–139.
2356
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum,' Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 188–189.
2357
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum,' Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 189–191.
2358
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum,' Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 190–191.
2359
Jean Richard, 'Les causes des victoires mongoles d'apres les historiens orientaux du XIIIe siecle,' Central AsiaticJournal 23 (1979) pp. 104–117.
2360
Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores 29 p. 262; Gockenjan & Sweeney, Mongolensturm p. 248; Richard, 'Les causes des victories,' loc. cit. pp. 109–110; Swietoslawski, Arms and Armour pp. 21–41, 58–61.
2361
Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck p. 185; Pelliot, Recherches p. 154; K. Uray-Kohalmi, 'Uber die pfeifenden Pfeile der innerasiatischen Reiternomaden,' Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 3 (1953) pp. 45–71.
2362
Liddell Hart, Great Captains Unveiled pp. 28–32.
2363
My one criticism of the otherwise excellent Mongols and the West by Peter Jackson is that he takes all these assertions too seriously (see p. 73).
2364
Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 46.
2365
Buell, Dictionary p. 110.
2366
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 333–334; d'Ohsson, Histoire II p. 69.
2367
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 332; Buell, Dictionary pp. 235, 258.
2368
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 331.
2369
RT II p. 519.
2370
Liddell Hart, Great Captains Unveiled p. 30.
2371
Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 25.
2372
Sinor, Hungary p. 73.
2373
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum I Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 196–197.
2374
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum I Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 192–195.
2375
Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora iv p. 114; Veszpremy & Schaer, Simon of Keza pp. 145–147; Dienst, Leitha 1246.
2376
Gockenjan & Sweeney, Mongolensturm pp. 164–165, 244; Sinor, Hungary p. 74.
2377
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 325; Bezzola, Mongolen in abendlandischer Sicht pp. 87–88.
2378
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum,' Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 206–207.
2379
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum,' Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 208–209.
2380
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum,' Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 206–207; Dawson, Mongol Mission pp. 37–38.
2381
Bezzola, Mongolen in abendlandischer Sicht pp. 87–88.
2382
Strakosch-Grassmann, Mongolen in Mitteleuropa pp. 20–31, 35.
2383
Fiigedi, Castle and Society pp. 45–48.
2384
Gerhard, Wiener Neustadt pp. 3–10.
2385
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum I Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 214–215.
2386
d'Ohsson, Histoire II pp. 146–155.
2387
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum I Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 216–217.
2388
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum I Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 218–219.
2389
Gockenjan & Sweeney, Mongolensturm pp. 159, 182–185.
2390
Kahn, Secret History p. XXII.
2391
Sinor, Hungary pp. 74–75.
2392
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 325; Strakosch-Grassmann, Mongolen in Mitteleuropa pp. 166–167.
2393
Peric et al, Thomas of Split, History p. 299.
2394
Gockenjan & Sweeney, Mongolensturm p. 180.
2395
Gockenjan & Sweeney, Mongolensturm pp. 181, 257–260. See also Fine, Early Medieval Balkans pp. 283–284; Fine, Late Medieval Balkans pp. 143–152.
2396
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 326; Strakosch-Grassmann, Mongolen in Mitteleuropa pp. 168–173.
2397
Budge, Chronography I p. 398.
2398
Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores 9 p. 641.
2399
Spuler, Goldene Horde pp. 124–126; Vasary, Cumans and Tatars p. 70.
2400
Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores 20 p. 335; 22 p. 472; Gockenjan & Sweeney, Mongolensturm p. 266.
2401
Berend, At the Gate pp. 37–38; Jackson, Mongols and the West p. 207.
2402
Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores 17 p. 394; Gockenjan & Sweeney, Mongolensturm pp. 159, 182–185, 255.
2403
Rady et al, Gesta Hungarorum,' Epistola in Miserabile Carmen pp. 220–221.
2404
Gockenjan & Sweeney, Mongolensturm pp. 182–185, 258; Rogers, Medieval Warfare III p. 34.
2405
Morris Rossabi, 'The Legacy of the Mongols,' in Manz, Central Asia pp. 27–44; John Masson Smith, 'Demographic Considerations in Mongol Siege Warfare,' Archivum Ottomanicum 13 (1994) pp. 323–394; James Ross Sweeney, "'Spurred on by Fear of Death",' loc. cit. pp. 34–62; Sweeney, 'Identifying the Medieval Refugee: Hungarians in Flight during the Mongol Invasions,' in Lob et al, Forms of Identity pp. 63–76.
2406
Gregory G. Guzman, 'European Clerical Envoys to the Mongols: Reports of Western Merchants in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, 1231–1255,' Journal of Medieval History 22 (1996) pp. 53–67; cf also Olschki, Guillaume Boucher.
2407
Jackson, Mongols in the West p. 70.
2408
Sinor, Hungary p. 76.
2409
Bezzola, Mongolen in abendlandischer Sicht pp. 110–113; Sinor, 'Les relations entre les Mongols et l'Europe jusqu'a la mort d'Arghoun et de Bela IV' Cahiers d'Histoire Mondiale 3 (1956) pp. 39–62 (at p. 47); Sinor, 'John of Carpini's Return from Mongolia: New light from a Luxembourg Manuscript, 'Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1957) pp. 193–206 (at pp. 203–205); A. Paloczi-Horvath, 'L'immigration et l'etablissement des Comans en Hongrie, 'Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 29 (1975) pp. 313–333; Berend, At the Gate pp. 134–138; Anthony Luttrell, 'The Hospitallers in Hungary before 1418: Problems and Sources,' in Hunyadi & Laszlovsky, Crusades and the Military Orders pp. 269–281 (at pp. 271–272); J. Muldoon, Popes, Lawyers and Infidels pp. 59–60.
2410
Berend, At the Gate pp. 68–73, 87–93, 97–100.
2411
Sinor, Hungary pp. 77–78.
2412
Vernadsky, Mongols and Russia p. 58.
2413
Êåé-Õîñðîâ II Ãèéàñ àä-Äèí, ñóëòàí Ðóìà, êîíèéñêèé ñóëòàí. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
2414
Budge, Chronography I p. 409; Cahen, Formation of Turkey pp. 70–71; Cahen, Pre-Ottoman Turkey pp. 137–138; Miller, Trebizond pp. 24–26; Bryer, Trebizond; John Masson Smith, 'Mongol Nomadism and Middle Eastern Geography: Qishlaqs and Tumens,' in Amitai-Preiss & Morgan, Mongol Empire and its Legacy pp. 39–56; Atwood, Encyclopedia p. 555.
2415
This theory is mainly associated with Denis Sinor. See Sinor, 'The Mongols in the West,' Journal of Asian History 33 (1999) pp. 1–44; Sinor, 'Horses and Pasture,' Oriens Extremus 19 (1972) pp. 171–183; Sinor, 'Horse and Pasturage in Inner Asian History,' in his Inner Asia and its Contacts with Medieval Europe pp. 171–184 (esp. pp. 181–183).
2416
Greg S. Rogers, 'An Examination of Historians' Explanations for the Mongol Withdrawal from East Central Europe,' East European Quarterly 30 (1996) pp. 3–26.
2417
Kosztolnyik, Hungary p. 182.
2418
Rachewiltz, In the Service p. 25.
2419
Dawson, Mongol Mission pp. 44–45.
2420
Monumenta Germanic Historica, Scriptores 32 p. 210; Salimbene de Adam, Cronica I p. 317; Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora vi pp. 82; Dawson, Mongol Mission pp. 44–46.
2421
Jackson, Mongols and the West p. 358; Nicol, Last Centuries p. 22.
2422
Jackson, Mongols and the West pp. 143–147.
2423
Dawson, Mongol Mission pp. 44–49.
2424
Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores 17 p. 341; Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora VI p. 82.
2425
Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores 17 p. 341; Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora VI p. 387.
2426
JB I p. 240; II p. 588.
2427
Mitchell & Forbes, Chronicle of Novgorod pp. 86–87.
2428
Fennell, Crisis p. 105; Tumler, Deutsche Orden pp. 266–267; Nicolle, Peipus.
2429
The quote is from Fennell, Crists p. 106.
2430
Donald Ostrowski, 'Alexander Nevskii's "Battle on the Ice": The Creation of a Legend,' Russian History 33 (2006) pp. 289–312; Dittmar Dahlmann, 'Der russische Sieg fiber die "teutonischen Ritter" auf dem Peipussee 1242,' in Krumeich & Brandt, Schlachtenmythen pp. 63–75; Fennell & Stokes, Early Russian Literature pp. 107–121. The extent to which Lake Peipus has been presented as a battle to rank with Gaugamela, Zama, Alesia or Waterloo is well-nigh incredible. In Eisensteiris 1938 film, which portrays Nevsky as a peerless hero, no historical context is given. The Mongols appear, meaninglessly, in the first ten minutes, as if they were spear-carriers or extras in the drama. A great film, certainly, with wonderful music by Prokofiev, but essentially historical nonsense. Suppressio veri and suggestio falsi are used to create the impression that Nevsky saved 'Russia' (which of course did not exist at that time) from threats both east and west — Stalin's way of saying that the USSR could withstand attacks from both Hitler's Germany and Japan.
2431
Buell, Dictionary p. 266; Jurgen Sarnowsky, 'The Teutonic Order Confronts the Mongols and Turks,' in Barber, Military Orders pp. 253–262.
2432
Isoaho, Aleksandr Nevskiy pp. 88–98.
2433
Dawson, Mongol Mission pp. 62, 65, 70; Fennell, Crisis pp. 98–99, 107–108, 110–120.
2434
For Sartaq see JR II p. 1291; JB I p. 223; Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck pp. 117–119; Allsen, Mongol Imperialism pp. 136–138; Allsen, 'Mongol Census-Taking in Rus', 1245–1275,' Harvard Ukrainian Studies 5 (1981) pp. 32–53 (at p. 40); Dawson, Mongol Mission pp. 45, 65, 117–118; Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck pp. 114–122; Pelliot, Horde d'Or pp. 134–144; Spuler, Goldene Horde pp. 33–34. There was a brief interregnum in 1257 between the khanates of Sartaq and Berke when Sartaq's brother Ulaghchi reigned (Pelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I pp. 92–95; Pelliot, Horde d'Or pp. 47–51). For Berke's conversion to Islam see Jean Richard, 'La conversion de Berke et les debuts de l'islamisation de la Horde d'Or,' Revue des Etudes Islamiques 35 (1967) pp. 173–184; Istvan Vasary, 'History and Legend in Berke Khan's conversion to Islam,' in Sinor, Aspects III pp. 230–252.
2435
JR II p. 1149; JB I pp. 239–246.
2436
Êîäåí. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
2437
JB I pp. 21, 171, 176; Hambis, Le chapitre CVII; Boyle, Successors p. 181. For Koden and Shiremun see Buell, Dictionary pp. 184, 243.
2438
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 332; Boyle, Successors pp. 179, 183; David Ayalon, 'The Great Yasa,' Studia Islamica 34 (1971) pp. 151–180 (at pp. 157–159, 164–165; Spuler, Mongolen in Iran p. 39.
2439
JB I pp. 255–257; Grousset, Empire p. 271; Hodong Kim, 'A Reappraisal of Guyiik Khan,' in Amitai & Biran, Mongols, Turks and Others pp. 309–338.
2440
Allsen, Mongol Imperialism pp. 21–22, 54–63.
2441
JR II p. 1151; Boyle, Successors pp. 99, 180–186; Jackson, 'The Dissolution of the Mongol Empire,' Central Asiatic Journal 22 (1978) pp. 186–244 (at pp. 200–201); Atwood, Encyclopedia p. 213.
2442
Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck pp. 46–50,163–164; Atwood, Encyclopedia p. 512.
2443
Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck p. 169; Pelliot, 'Les Mongols et la papaute,' Revue de I'Orient chretien 24 (1924) p. 203; Aiken, Mongol Imperialism pp. 30–37.
2444
Boyle, Successors pp. 21–22, 216; W Abramowski, 'Die chinesischen Annalen der Mongke,' Zentralasiatische Studien 13 (1979) pp. 7–71 (at pp. 20–21, 28); Morgan, Mongols pp. 103–104.
2445
Lane, Daily Life p. 9.
2446
Barnes & Hudson, History Atlas of Asia p. 87.
2447
Morgan, Medieval Persia pp. 64–72.
2448
Krause, Epoche der Mongolen p. 6.
2449
Khazanov, Nomads and the Outside World, pp. 238–239.
2450
D. C. Wright, 'Was Chinggis Khan Literate?' in Janhunen, Writing pp. 305–312.
2451
Unlu, Genealogy of a World Empire p. 88.
2452
Sechin Jagchid, 'The Historical Interaction between the Nomadic People in Mongolia and the Sedentary Chinese,' in Seaman & Marks, Rulers from the Steppe pp. 63–91 (at p. 81).
2453
Quoted in Weatherford, Genghis Khan p. 125.
2454
T. Zerjal et al, 'The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols,' American Journal of Human Genetics 72 (2003) pp. 717–721. Not being a geneticist, I find the detailed argument difficult to follow, but it seems to hinge on the Haplogroup C — M217 and its subgroup C — M130.
2455
Garrett Hellenthal, Simon Myers, Daniel Falush, et al, A Genetic Atlas of Human Admixture History,' Science 343 (14 February 2014) pp. 747–751.
2456
S. Abilev et al, 'The Y-chromosome C3* Star Cluster Attributed to Genghis Khan's Descendants,' Human Biology 84 (2012) pp. 79–89. See also the discussion in Hard & Jones, Genetics p. 309; Chapin, Long Lines; Cooper, Geography of Genocide; Wells, Journey of Man.
2457
Äîâåäåíèå äî àáñóðäà (ëàò.).
2458
The 'great man' theory and its critics form one of the most hotly contested battlegrounds in historiography, with luminaries such as Carlyle, Nietzsche and Kierkegaard promoting and Engels, Tolstoy and Herbert Spencer opposing. See Leonid Grinin, 'The Role of an Individual in History: A Reconsideration,' Social Evolution and History 9 (2010) pp. 95–136; Friedrich Engels, introduction to Socialism; Hook, Hero.
2459
Montesquieu, Considerations on the Causes of the Greatness of the Romans (1734) Chapter 18.
2460
Fletcher, 'The Mongols,' loc. cit. pp. 35–36. Pace the strenuous objections in Tolstoy's War and Peace: 'The words chance and genius do not denote anything that actually exists, and therefore they cannot be defined. These two words merely indicate a certain degree of comprehension of phenomena. I do not know why a certain event occurs; I suppose that I cannot know; therefore I do not try to know, and I talk about chance. I see a force producing effects beyond the scope of ordinary human agencies; I do not understand why this occurs, and I cry genius' (War and Peace, Epilogue, part 1.2, translated by Rosemary Edmonds). The rhetoric is strong but the accompanying arguments are weak and amount to little more than Tolstoy's ex cathedra assertion that factors of inevitability must be at play.
2461
For Ibn Khaldun and his views on climate see Warren E. Gates, 'The Spread of Ibn Khaldun's Ideas on Climate and Culture,' Journal of the History of Ideas 28 (1967) pp. 415–422; Fromherz, Ibn Khaldun.
2462
On climate see Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, Chapter 14. On the Mongols see ibid. pp. 268–280.
2463
Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom pp. 21–24.
2464
Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom pp. 21–24.
2465
Drought is emphasised in all the following studies: Lattimore, 'The Geographical Factor in Mongol History,' Geographical Journal 41 (1938) pp. 1–20, reproduced in Studies in Frontier History pp. 241–258; Ellsworth Huntington, 'Changes of Climate and History,' American Historical Review 18 (1913) pp. 213–232, and cf Martin, Ellsworth Huntington and G. F. Hudson's note in Toynbee, Study of History (1962) III annex 2 p. 453; Brown, History and Climate Change pp. 211–221.
2466
Brown, Geography of Human Conflict pp. 53–57 (esp. p. 54).
2467
Yongkang Xue, 'The Impact of Desertification in Mongolia and the Inner Mongolian Grassland on the Regional Climate,' Journal of Climate 9 (1996) pp. 2173–2189.
2468
Cold weather theorists include Gareth Jenkins, 'A Note on Climate Cycles and the Rise of Chinggis Khan,' Central Asiatic Journal 18 (1974) pp. 217–226 and William S. Atwell, 'Volcanism and Short-Term Climatic Change in East Asian and World History c. 1200–1699,' Journal of World History 12 (2001) pp. 29–98 (at pp. 42–45).
2469
Mara Hvistendahl, 'Roots of Empire,' Science 337 (28 September 2012) pp. 1596–1599. Another 'wet conditions' advocate is H. H. Lamb, Climate, History and the Modern World pp. 184–185, 317.
2470
Brown, History and Climate Change p. 217.
2471
Lattimore, 'The Geographical Factor,' in Studies in Frontier History pp. 252–253; Lattimore, 'The Historical Setting of Inner Mongolian Nationalism,' ibid. pp. 440–455.
2472
Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom p. 259.
2473
Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom pp. 19–20.
2474
Togan, Flexibility and Limitation p. 6.
2475
Fletcher, 'The Mongols,' loc. cit. pp. 22–34. For further contributions to the climate debate see B. Beentjes, 'Nomadwanderungen und Klimaschwangen,' Central Asiatic Journal 30 (1986) pp. 7–17; A. W B. Meyer, 'Climate and Migration,' in Bell-Fialkoff, Role of Migration pp. 287–294; V G. Dirksen et al, 'Chronology of Holocene Climate and Vegetation Changes and their Connection to Cultural Dynamics in Southern Siberia,' Radiocarbon 49 (2007) pp. 1103–1121; B. van Geel, 'Climate Change and the Expansion of the Scythian Culture after 850 ÂÑ: A Hypothesis,' Archaeological Science 31 (2004) pp. 1735–1742; 33 (2006) pp. 143–148.
2476
Julia Pongratz et al, 'Coupled Climate-Carbon Simulations Indicate Minor Global Effects of Wars and Epidemics on Atmospheric CO2," The Holocene 21 (2011) pp. 848–851.
2477
Keegan, History of Warfare (1994) p. 214. For the 'Mongols to blame' see also Salisbury, Coming War p. 31.
2478
Ostrowski, Muscovy and the Mongols pp. 3–4.
2479
Weatherford, Genghis Khan pp. xxiv, 237–238.
2480
Áýêîí Ðîäæåð (1214–1294) — àíãëèéñêèé ôèëîñîô è åñòåñòâîèñïûòàòåëü, ñîñòîÿë âî ôðàíöèñêàíñêîì îðäåíå. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
2481
Martels, Travel Fact pp. 54–71. It is interesting that Weatherford, Genghis p. 236 has Francis Bacon in the late sixteenth century summing up the three breakthrough technologies that came to the West from the Mongols as printing, gunpowder and the compass, for Janet Abu-Lughod (The World System pp. 23–24) makes an explicit comparison between the two Bacons, having religion (Roger Bacon) contrast with politics (Francis Bacon) and the allegiance of the former to the Pope contrasted with that of the latter to the monarch.
2482
Anatoly M. Khazanov, 'Muhammad and Jenghis Khan Compared: The Religious Factor in Empire Building,' Comparative Studies in Society and History 35 (1993) ðð. 461–479.
2483
J. J. Saunders, 'The Nomad as Empire-Builder: A Comparison of the Arab and Mongol Conquests,' in Rice, Muslims and Mongols pp. 36–66.
2484
Schurmann, Economic Structure pp. 66–67; Thomas T. Allsen, 'Mongol Census-Taking in Rus', 1245–1275,' Harvard Ukraine Studies 5 (1981) pp. 32–53 (at pp. 33–36).
2485
Hans Bielenstein, 'Chinese Historical Demography ad 2–1982,' Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities 59 (1987) pp. 85–88; Ping-ti Ho, 'An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China,' in Fran^oise Aubin, ed. Etudes Song pp. 3–53.
2486
May, Mongol Conquests p. 224.
2487
Brook, Troubled Empire pp. 42–44.
2488
Brook, Troubled Empire p. 45; Fitzgerald, China pp. 312–315.
2489
Buell, Dictionary pp. 211–215; Brown, History of Climate Change p. 218; J. D. Durand, 'Population Statistics of China, ad 2–1953,' Population Studies 13 (1960) pp. 209–256. Morgan, Mongols p. 83 estimates the population of Jin China as 100 million before the Mongol conquest and 70 million after. For Champa rice see Ping-ti Ho, 'Early-Ripening Rice in Chinese History,' Economic History Review 18 (1956) pp. 200–218.
2490
Pinker, Better Angels pp. 94, 707 cites the high figures. Fitzgerald, China pp. 314, 624 regards such high figures as risible.
2491
Graff, Medieval Chinese Warfare p. 240; Twitchett, Sui and T'ang China.
2492
Fairbank, Late Ch'ing pp. 264–350.
2493
Fairbank & Feuerwerker, Republican China.
2494
Chalmers Johnson, 'The Looting of Asia', London Review of Books 25 (20 November 2003) pp. 3–6.
2495
Wedgwood, Thirty Years War.
2496
Hochschild, King Leopold's Ghost pp. 226–232.
2497
Franke & Twitchett, Cambridge History p. 622. McEvedy & Jones, World Population History p. 172 accepts a decline in population from 115 million to 85 million as a result of the Mongol invasions. The nineteenth-century scholar Jeremiah Curtin thought that the death toll from the Mongols in China (including Hsi-Hsia) was 18,500,000 in 1211–23 alone (Mongols p. 141).
2498
For the difficulty even of estimating the population of Samarkand see Schafer, Golden Peaches p. 280.
2499
David O. Morgan, 'Ibn Battuta and the Mongols,' Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 3rd series 11 (2001) pp. i-ii. See also Dunn, Adventures of Ibn Battuta.
2500
Authors prepared to accept a figure of 15 million fatalities in the defeat of the Khwarezmian empire and the 'mopping up' operations against Jalal al-Din include Ward, Immortal p. 39; Rummel, Death by Government pp. 48–51; Macfarlane, Savage Wars p. 50; Grant, Battle pp. 92–94.
2501
Josiah C. Russell, 'Population in Europe,' in Cipolla, Economic History pp. 25–71.
2502
Morgan, Mongols p. 83. Godbey, Lost Tribes a Myth p. 385 wants to downsize this to only 20 million. Pinker, Better Angels pp. 235–237 has been derided for his suggestion of 40 million deaths but, it seems, exaggerates only slightly. McEvedy & Jones World Population History pp. 170–173 steer a middle course and estimate 25 million; see also White, Atrocities.
2503
Barthold, Turkestan p. 461.
2504
Lattimore, 'Chingis Khan and the Mongol Conquests,' Scientific American 209 (1963) p. 62; Rachewiltz, Papal Envoys p. 65.
2505
Noreen Gilfney, 'Monstrous Mongols,' Postmedieval 3 (2012) pp. 227–245.
2506
SHR pp. 181–186.
2507
George Lane, 'The Mongols in Iran,' in Daryaee, Iranian History pp. 243–270 (at p. 249).
2508
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 93.
2509
Halperin, Golden Horde p. 22.
2510
For this position see Schmidt, Tarnovsky & Berkhin, USSR pp. 29–30; Wittfogel, Oriental Despotism p. 225; Gleason, Russian History p. 78.
2511
Ostrowski, Muscovy and the Mongols is a detailed, point-by-point (and convincing) refutation of the 'Mongol yoke' in every facet of Russian life.
2512
Charles J. Halperin, 'George Vernadsky, Eurasianism, the Mongols and Russia,' Slavic Review 41 (1982) pp. 477–493; Halperin, Golden Horde.
2513
David B. Miller, 'Monumental Building as an Indicator of Economic Trends in Northern Rus' in the late Kievan and Mongol Periods 1138–1462,' American Historical Review 94 (1989) pp. 360–390.
2514
Ostrowski, Muscovy and the Mongols pp. 64–68.
2515
Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 18; Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck pp. 90–91; Latham, Travels of Marco Polo p. 98; Yule, Ser Marco Polo I p. 252.
2516
Halperin, Golden Horde p. 116.
2517
Ostrowski, Muscovy and the Mongols pp. 7, 63; Vernadsky, Mongols and Russia pp. 364–366.
2518
Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom pp. 222–223; Khazanov, Nomads and the Outside World pp. 152–164.
2519
Barthold, Four Studies I p. 43.
2520
Yule & Cordier, Cathay II pp. 287–291; III pp. 137–173.
2521
Ciociltan, Black Sea Trade pp. 2, 20–21.
2522
Hamby, Central Asia p. 123.
2523
Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony pp. 153–184; Adshead, Central Asia pp. 3–5, 26–27, 53; Gary Seaman, 'World Systems and State Formation on the Inner Eurasian Periphery,' in Seaman & Marks, Rulers from the Steppe pp. 1–20; Ruotsala, Europeans and Mongols.
2524
Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations, iv part 2 pp. 221–226.
2525
Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations, iv part 2 pp. 389–394, 451–453.
2526
H. Franke, 'Sino-Western Contacts under the Mongol Empire,' Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 6 (1966) pp. 59-ä; Heissig & Muller, Mongolen pp. 54–57.
2527
Pegolotti, Pratica della mercatura p. 22.
2528
Larner, Marco Polo p. 28; Reichert, Begegnungen mit China pp. 83–84; Jackson, Mongols in the West pp. 309–310.
2529
Hodong Kim, 'The Unity of the Mongol Empire and Continental Exchanges over Eurasia,' Journal of Central Eurasian Studies I (2009) pp. 15–42 (at p. 16).
2530
Òàêæå Èîàíí Ìîíòåêîðâèíñêèé, ôðàíöèñêàíñêèé ìèññèîíåð, ïåðâûé â èñòîðèè àðõèåïèñêîï Ïåêèíñêèé. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
2531
For John of Montecorvino see Yule, Cathay I pp. 165–173, 197–221; Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography III pp. 162–178, 206–210.
2532
Denise Aigle, 'De la "non negotiation" à l'alliance aboutie: Reflexions sur la diplomatic entre les Mongols et l'Occident latin,' Oriente Moderno 88 (2008) pp. 395–434.
2533
Abu-Lughod, World System p. 18.
2534
RT III pp. 565–566, 605–606; Ricci, Marco Polo pp. 16–17; Yule, Cathay III p. 49; J. Richard, Papaute et les missions pp. 145–146; Abu-Lughod, World System pp. 185–211.
2535
Thomas T. Allsen, 'Mongolian Princes and their Merchant Partners, 1200–1260,' Asia Major, 3rd series 2 (1989) pp. 83–126.
2536
McNeill, Plagues and Peoples pp. 93, 102–120, 134, 140–147.
2537
Íåîáû÷íàÿ (ëàò.).
2538
Owen Lattimore, 'Feudalism in History,' Past and Present 12 (1957) pp. 47–57.
2539
Rachewiltz, Papal Envoys p. 65. For criticisrhs of 'nomadic feudalism' and indeed the Mongol system as in any way feudal see Bold, Nomadic Society pp. 21–24; Khazanov, Nomads and the Outside World pp. 132, 135, 139, 144, 159, 255.
2540
Rachewiltz, Papal Envoys pp. 66–67; Vernadsky, Mongols and Russia pp. 118, 213, 339–341.
2541
Lattimore, Inner Asian Frontiers pp. 61–65, 361–365.
2542
Anderson, Passages from Antiquity p. 223.
2543
Vernadsky, Mongols and Russia pp. 130–131.
2544
Lattimore, Inner Asian Frontiers pp. 519–523.
2545
Fletcher, 'The Mongols' p. 50.
2546
See the outstanding analysis by Anderson, Passages from Antiquity pp. 218–225.
2547
Almaz Khan, 'Chinggis Khan from Imperial Ancestor to Ethnic Hero,' in Harrell, Cultural Encounters pp. 248–277; P. L. W Sabloff, 'Genghis Khan, Father of Mongolian Democracy,' in Sabloff, Modern Mongolia pp. 225–251.
2548
In his play Axel (1890). See Bourre, Villiers de L'Isle-Adam.
2549
Armstrong et al, Francis of Assisi: Early Documents.
2550
SHO pp. 93, 197–199; SHR pp. 43, 139–141.
2551
A. Mostaert, 'A propos d'une priere au feu,' in Poppe, American Studies in Altaic Linguistics pp. 191–223; Heissig, Religions of Mongolia pp. 48–59.
2552
E. Lot-Falck, 'A propos d'Atugan, deesse mongole de la terre,' Revue de I'Histoire des Religions 149 (1956) pp. 157–196; Yule & Cordier, Marco Polo I pp. 257–259; Heissig, Religions pp. 7, 76–84.
2553
N. Poppe, 'Zum Feuerkultus bei den Mongolen,' Asia Minor 2 (1925) pp. 130–145 (at p. 141).
2554
Rachewiltz, Commentary pp. 329–331; Heissig, Religions pp. 84–90.
2555
Moule & Pelliot, Marco Polo I pp. 199–200; Baldick, Animal and Shaman pp. 95, 104, 108.
2556
P. Pelliot, 'Notes sur le "Turkestan",' T'oung Pao 26 (1929) pp. 113–182 (at p. 133); Yule & Cordier, Marco Polo I p. 257; Moule & Pelliot, Marco Polo p. 257; Heissig, Religions pp. 102–110.
2557
Moule & Pelliot, Marco Polo I p. 170.
2558
Heissig, Religions pp. 6–7, 46.
2559
Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 7.
2560
Heissig, Religions p. 35.
2561
Hutton, Shamans pp. 47–49; Caroline Humphrey, 'Shamanic Practices and the State in Northern Asia,' in Thomas & Humphrey, Shamanism pp. 191–228 (at p. 208); Humphrey & Onon, Shamans and Elders p. 51.
2562
Humphrey, 'Shamanic Practices,' loc. cit. pp. 199–200.
2563
Dawson, Mongol Mission p. 12; Jackson & Morgan, Rubruck p. 72; Jean-Paul Roux, 'Tangri: Essai sur le ciel-dieu des peuples altaiques,' Revue de I'Histoire des Religions 149 (1956) pp. 49–82, 197–230; 150 (1956) pp. 27–54, 173–212.
2564
Jean-Paul Roux, 'La tolerance religieuse dans les empires turco-mongols,' Revue de I'Histoire des Religions 203 (1986) pp. 131–168 (at p. 164).
2565
Caroline Humphrey, 'Theories of North Asian Shamanism,' in Gellner, Soviet and. Western Anthropology pp. 242–252.
2566
Vitebsky, Shaman p. 74.
2567
Vitebsky, Shaman pp. 56–73, 94–95.
2568
Heissig, Religions pp. 17–19.
2569
Vitebsky, Shaman pp. 25, 54–55, 81; Andrew Neher, 'A Physiological Explanation of Unusual Behavior in Ceremonies Involving Drums,' Human Biology 34 (1962) pp. 151–160.
2570
Vitebsky, Shaman p. 22.
2571
Hutton, Shamans p. 107; Heissig, Religions p. 20.
2572
For the congruence of Mongol and Persian theology and theogony see Gumilev, Imaginary Kingdom pp. 267–269.
2573
Jagchid & Hyer, Mongolia's Culture pp. 163–167.
2574
Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations iv part 2 pp. 65–66.
2575
Heissig, Religions p. 7; Vitebsky, Shaman p. 135; Piers Vitebsky, 'Some Medieval European Views of Mongolian Shamanism,' Journal of the Anglo-Mongolian Society 1 (1974) pp. 24–42. See also Foltz, Religions of the Silk Road.
2576
Denis Sinor claims that the title 'gur-khan' was much like Franco's 'Caudillo' and Hitler's 'Fiihrer': 'The Khitans and the Kara Khitans,' in Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations iv part. I pp. 227–242 (at p. 235).
2577
JB I pp. 354–361.
2578
For the people who conquered the Qara-Khanids see E. A. Davidovich, 'The Karakhanids,' in Asimov & Bosworth, History of Civilizations, iv part 1 pp. 119–144; Peter B. Golden, 'The Karakhanids and Early Islam,' in Sinor, Early Inner Asia pp. 343–370.
2579
Hill, Jade Gate to Rome.
2580
For the vassal status see Beckwith, Empires of the Silk Road pp. 148–159; Stein, Ancient Khotan pp. 123–133.
2581
Grousset, Empire pp. 159–167; Golden, Turkic Peoples; Tetley, Ghaznavid and Seljuk Turks.
2582
Biran, Qara Khitai pp. 41–44.
2583
Biran, Qara Khitai pp. 146–160 for full details on all aspects of the Qara Khitai army.
2584
For Prester John see Beckingham & Hamilton, Prester John; Silverberg, Realm of Prester John; Hawting, Muslims, Mongols and Crusaders; Charles E. Nowell, 'The Historical Prester John,' Speculum 28 (1953) pp. 435–445.
2585
Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I pp. 208–235.
2586
For another view of Yelu see Thiebaud, Personnages marquants.
2587
For Almaliq see Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither II pp. 288, 321, 388; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches I p. 224; II p. 33.
2588
Biran, Qara Khitai pp. 133–135.
2589
Biran, Qara Khitai p. 136.
2590
Biran, Qara Khitai pp. 93–131, 146–147.
2591
P. D. Buell, 'Sino-Khitan Administration in Mongol Bukhara,' Journal of Asiatic History 13 (1979) ðð. 121–151; D. O. Morgan, 'Who Ran the Mongol Empire?' Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1982) pp. 124–136.
2592
Gyorgy Kara, 'On the Khitans' Writing System,' Mongolian Studies to (1987) pp. 19–24; Daniels & Bright, Writing Systems pp. 230–235.
2593
Denis Sinor, 'Central Eurasia,' in Sinor, Orientalism and History pp. 82–103 (at p. 84); Hambis, Haute Asie p. 56; Spuler, Goldene Horde p. 346; Ñ. E. Bosworth, 'The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World, ad 1000–1217,' in Boyle, Cambridge History of Iran v pp. 1–203 (at pp. 147–148); Lieu, Manichaeism in Central Asia pp. 126–176.
2594
Jennifer Holmgren, 'Imperial Marriage in the Native Chinese and Non-Han State, Han to Ming,' in Watson & Ebrey, Marriage and Inequality ðð. 58–96 (at pp. 81–82); Biran, Qara Khitai, pp. 160–168.
2595
Eelliot, Notes sur Marco Polo I pp. 216–229; Barthold, Pour Studies I pp. 27–29, 100–110.
2596
Wittfogel & Feng, Liao p. 665.
2597
Biran, Qara Khitai p. 84.
2598
JB II p. 360.
2599
Biran, Qara Khitai pp. 84–85.
2600
Soucek, Inner Asia pp. 99–100.
2601
Bartold, Turkestan pp. 324–327; Barthold, Four Studies I p. 29; Herbert Franke, 'The Forest Peoples,' in Sinor, Early Inner Asia pp. 400–423 (at p. 410).
2602
Grousset, Empire p. 160.
2603
Barthold, Turkestan p. 339.
2604
Hartmann, An-Nasir li-Din Allah pp. 70–78; Hanne, Putting the Caliph.
2605
Barthold, Turkestan pp. 348–349; Boyle, Cambridge History of Iran v p. 167.
2606
Ñ. E. Bosworth, 'The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World, ad 1000–1217,' in Boyle, Cambridge History of Iran v pp. 1–203 (at pp. 182–191).
2607
JB I p. 314.
2608
Bosworth, 'Ghurids' in Bernard Lewis, ed., Encyclopedia of Islam (1991) II p. 100.
2609
Biran, Qara Khitai pp. 65–66.
2610
Budge, Chronography I p. 351.
2611
Biran, Qara Khitai pp. 69–70.
2612
For full details on Muhammad's early career see JR I pp. 254–267; JB I pp. 316–321.
2613
JB II pp. 325, 357, 390.
2614
Ãîðîäà â ïðîâèíöèè Ïåíäæàá ñîâðåìåííîãî Ïàêèñòàíà. — Ïðèì. ïåð.
2615
Luniya, Life and Culture p. 293; Biran, Qara Khitai p. 70.
2616
JB I pp. 329–331; Bosworth in Cambridge History of Iran v. pp. 1–202 (at pp. 164–165).
2617
JB II pp. 341–352, 358–361; Barthold, Turkestan pp. 355–361.
2618
Biran, Qara Khitai p. 72.
2619
JB II p. 352.
2620
JB I pp. 336–339.
2621
JB I pp. 65, 74.
2622
Barthold, Turkestan p. 362.
2623
Biran, Qara Khitai p. 73.
2624
JB II pp. 357–358.
2625
RT I p. 68.
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