Ïðèìå÷àíèÿ êíèãè: Ìîçã: ïðîøëîå è áóäóùåå - ÷èòàòü îíëàéí, áåñïëàòíî. Àâòîð: Àëàí Äæàñàíîâ

÷èòàòü êíèãè îíëàéí áåñïëàòíî
 
 

Îíëàéí êíèãà - Ìîçã: ïðîøëîå è áóäóùåå

Wall Street Journal íàçâàë ýòó êíèãó îäíîé èç ïÿòè íàó÷íûõ ðàáîò, îáÿçàòåëüíûõ ê ïðî÷òåíèþ. Ó÷åíûå, ïðåïîäàâàòåëè, èññëåäîâàòåëè è ÷èòàòåëè ãîâîðÿò î íåé êàê î ðåâîëþöèîííîé, ïåðåâîðà÷èâàþùåé ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ î ìîçãå.  íàøåé êóëüòóðå ïðèíÿòî îòíîñèòüñÿ ê ìîçãó êàê ê ãëàâíîìó îðãàíó, êîòîðûé ôîðìèðóåò íàøó ëè÷íîñòü, îòâå÷àåò çà óñïåõè è íåóäà÷è, çà âñå, ÷òî ìû äåëàåì, è âñå, ÷òî ñ íàìè ïðîèñõîäèò. Ìû ïðèðàâíèâàåì ìîçã ê êîìïüþòåðó, ñ÷èòàÿ åãî «ãëàâíûì» â íàøåé æèçíè. Íåéðîôèçèîëîã è áèîèíæåíåð Àëàí Äæàñàíîâ ïðåäëàãàåò íîâûé âçãëÿä íà ðîëü ìîçãà è ðàññêàçûâàåò î òîì, êàêèå èìåííî ôàêòîðû îêðóæàþùåé ñðåäû è ïðîöåññû ÷åëîâå÷åñêîãî òåëà ôîðìèðóþò ëè÷íîñòü è äåëàþò íàñ òåìè, êòî ìû åñòü.

Ïåðåéòè ê ÷òåíèþ êíèãè ×èòàòü êíèãó « Ìîçã: ïðîøëîå è áóäóùåå »

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Ïðåäñòàâëåíèÿ Ìàðêñà îá èñòîðèè êàê î êëàññîâîé áîðüáå ïîïóëÿðíåå âñåãî èçëîæåíû â «Ìàíèôåñòå êîììóíèñòè÷åñêîé ïàðòèè», êîòîðûé Ìàðêñ íàïèñàë ñîâìåñòíî ñ Ôðèäðèõîì Ýíãåëüñîì. «Ìàíèôåñò» áûë àíîíèìíî îïóáëèêîâàí â Ãåðìàíèè â 1848 ãîäó.

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Ìàðêñ Ê. Ýêîíîìè÷åñêî-ôèëîñîôñêèå ðóêîïèñè 1844 ãîäà è äðóãèå ðàííèå ôèëîñîôñêèå ðàáîòû. (ÑÏá.: Àêàäåìè÷åñêèé ïðîåêò, 2010).

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Îòåö Óèëüÿìà Äæåéìñà, Ãåíðè Äæåéìñ-ñòàðøèé, áûë èçâåñòíûì áîãîñëîâîì, à â ÷èñëî áðàòüåâ è ñåñòåð Óèëüÿìà âõîäèëè ïèñàòåëü Ãåíðè Äæåéìñ è ìåìóàðèñòêà Ýëèñ Äæåéìñ.

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Ñàìûå âûäàþùèåñÿ ïðèìåðû – Îñâàëüä Êþëüïå èç Âþðöáóðãñêîãî óíèâåðñèòåòà, Ãðýíâèëë Ñòýíëè Õîëë èç Óíèâåðñèòåòà Äæîíñà Õîïêèíñà, à çàòåì Óíèâåðñèòåòà Êëàðêà, Ýäâàðä Òîðíäàéê è Äæåéìñ Êåòòåëë èç Êîëóìáèéñêîãî óíèâåðñèòåòà, Ýäâèí Áîðèíã èç Ãàðâàðäà è ×àðëüç Ñïèðìàí èç Ëîíäîíñêîãî Óíèâåðñèòåòñêîãî êîëëåäæà.

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Èñòîðèÿ ïñèõîëîãèè î÷åð÷åíà â ýòîé ãëàâå, áåçóñëîâíî, â ñàìûõ îáùèõ ÷åðòàõ, è ìû íå óäåëÿåì äîëæíîãî âíèìàíèÿ ìíîãèì ó÷åíûì, ñûãðàâøèì âàæíóþ ðîëü â ýòîé îáëàñòè, îñîáåííî Ôðåéäó, êîòîðîìó ÿ óäåëèë íà ýòèõ ñòðàíèöàõ íåçàñëóæåííî ìàëî ìåñòà. Ðåçîííî çàÿâèòü, ÷òî åãî óïîð íà ñòðóêòóðó èíäèâèäóàëüíîãî áåññîçíàòåëüíîãî â öåëîì ñîîòâåòñòâóåò âîççðåíèÿì ïñèõîëîãîâ êîíöà XIX âåêà ñ èõ ñòàâêîé íà èíòðîñïåêöèþ, îäíàêî â öåëîì åãî ïîäõîä çíà÷èòåëüíî öåëüíåå è «íàó÷íåå». Àêàäåìè÷åñêèå ïñèõîëîãè â öåëîì îòâåðãàëè òåîðèþ Ôðåéäà, íî íàøåëñÿ ÷åëîâåê, ïðèìèðèâøèé èõ, – Ã. Ñòýíëè Õîëë, êîòîðûé ó÷èëñÿ è ó Äæåéìñà, è ó Âóíäòà è ãëóáîêî èññëåäîâàë ïñèõîëîãè÷åñêèå òåîðèè ïî âñåìó ñïåêòðó. Õîëë ïðèíèìàë Ôðåéäà âî âðåìÿ åãî åäèíñòâåííîé ïîåçäêè â Àìåðèêó â 1909 ãîäó. Ñàì Õîëë çàíèìàëñÿ è ïàðàíîðìàëüíîé ïñèõîëîãèåé, è ìåíòàëüíûì àíàëèçîì ðåëèãèîçíûõ äåÿòåëåé.

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Ñ ïðèìåðàìè óñëîâíûõ ðåôëåêñîâ ìû ñòàëêèâàëèñü â ãëàâå 2, ãäå øëà ðå÷ü îá ýêñïåðèìåíòå Øóëüöà è åãî êîëëåã, êîòîðûå ñâÿçàëè çðèòåëüíûé ñòèìóë ñ íàãðàäîé â õîäå èçó÷åíèÿ äîôàìèíîâîé íåéðîííîé ôóíêöèè ïðè îáó÷åíèè ó îáåçüÿí, à Íåäåðãààðä è åå êîëëåãè àññîöèèðîâàëè çâóêîâîé ñèãíàë ñ ëåãêèì óäàðîì òîêà, ÷òîáû èññëåäîâàòü ñïîñîáíîñòü ê îáó÷åíèþ ó ìûøåé, êîòîðûì ïåðåñàäèëè êëåòêè ÷åëîâå÷åñêîé íåéðîãëèè.

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Ñàìîå èçâåñòíîå îïèñàíèå ôåíîìåíà îïåðàíòíîãî îáóñëîâëèâàíèÿ ñì. â êíèãå: B. F. Skinner, The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1938). Îäíàêî ñàìî ïîíÿòèå ÷àñòî ïðèïèñûâàþò Ýäâàðäó Òîðíäàéêó, êîòîðûé óòâåðæäàë, ÷òî îáó÷åíèå, îñíîâàííîå íà äåéñòâèè, îïèðàåòñÿ íà òàê íàçûâàåìûé «çàêîí ýôôåêòà»: «Èç íåñêîëüêèõ ðåàêöèé íà îäíó è òó æå ñèòóàöèþ ïðè ïðî÷èõ ðàâíûõ óñëîâèÿõ ïðî÷íåå âñåãî ñâÿçûâàþòñÿ ñ ñèòóàöèåé òå, êîòîðûå ñîïðîâîæäàþòñÿ (íåïîñðåäñòâåííî èëè ñðàçó ïîñëå) óäîâëåòâîðåíèåì æèâîòíîãî æåëàíèÿ, òàê ÷òî ïðè ïîâòîðåíèè ñèòóàöèè ñ áîëüøîé âåðîÿòíîñòüþ ïîâòîðÿòñÿ è îíè, à ó òåõ ñèòóàöèé, êîòîðûå ñîïðîâîæäàþòñÿ (íåïîñðåäñòâåííî èëè ñðàçó ïîñëå) äèñêîìôîðòîì äëÿ æèâîòíîãî, ïðè ïðî÷èõ ðàâíûõ óñëîâèÿõ, ñâÿçü ñ ñèòóàöèåé îñëàáëÿåòñÿ, òàê ÷òî ïðè ïîâòîðåíèè ñèòóàöèè òàêèå ðåàêöèè ïîâòîðÿòñÿ ñ ìåíüøåé âåðîÿòíîñòüþ. ×åì áîëüøå óäîâëåòâîðåíèå è äèñêîìôîðò, òåì ñèëüíåå óêðåïëÿþòñÿ èëè îñëàáëÿþòñÿ ñâÿçè» (Edward L. Thorndike, «Animal Intelligence» (New York: Macmillan, 1911)).

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453

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454

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455

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456

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457

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458

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459

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460

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461

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462

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463

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464

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465

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466

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467

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468

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471

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472

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473

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476

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477

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478

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479

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480

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481

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482

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483

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484

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485

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486

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487

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488

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489

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490

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491

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492

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493

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494

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495

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496

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497

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498

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499

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500

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501

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502

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503

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504

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505

Ôëåê Ëþäâèã. Âîçíèêíîâåíèå è ðàçâèòèå íàó÷íîãî ôàêòà: Ââåäåíèå â òåîðèþ ñòèëÿ ìûøëåíèÿ è ìûñëèòåëüíîãî êîëëåêòèâà. (Ì.: Èäåÿ-Ïðåññ, Äîì èíòåëëåêòóàëüíîé êíèãè, 1999).

506

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507

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508

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509

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510

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511

Òàêóþ òî÷êó çðåíèÿ ïîääåðæèâàåò êðóïíîå èññëåäîâàíèå, ïðîâåäåííîå â 2014 ãîäó (F. A. Wright et al., «Heritability and genomics of gene expression in peripheral blood», «Nature» Genetics» 46 [2014]: 430–437): ó÷åíûå îáíàðóæèëè, ÷òî îêîëî 70 % ãåíîâ, ñâÿçûâàåìûõ ñ íàñëåäñòâåííûìè ðàññòðîéñòâàìè àóòèñòè÷åñêîãî ñïåêòðà èëè óìñòâåííîé îòñòàëîñòüþ, àññîöèèðóþòñÿ ñ èçìåíåíèÿìè ýêñïðåññèè ãåíîâ, êîòîðûå âëèÿþò íà ñîñòàâ êðîâè, òî åñòü ôèçèîëîãè÷åñêîå âîçäåéñòâèå íà ôóíêöèîíèðîâàíèå ìîçãà, âåðîÿòíî, îêàçûâàþò âíåìîçãîâûå ôàêòîðû.  2013 ãîäó îáçîð èññëåäîâàíèé ñâÿçè ìåæäó îæèðåíèåì è äåïðåññèåé ó ìîëîäåæè è ïîäðîñòêîâ (D. Nemiary et al., „The relationship between obesity and depression among adolescents“, „Psychiatric Annual“ 42 [2013]: 305–308), â ÷àñòíîñòè, ïîêàçàë, ÷òî òó÷íûå ïîäðîñòêè ñ áîëüøåé âåðîÿòíîñòüþ ñòàëêèâàþòñÿ ñ òðóäíîñòÿìè â øêîëå è ïñèõîëîãî-ïñèõèàòðè÷åñêèìè ðàññòðîéñòâàìè, ÷òî â çíà÷èòåëüíîé ñòåïåíè ñâÿçàíî ñ òðàâëåé è íåäîâîëüñòâîì ñâîèì òåëîì. Ïîñêîëüêó îæèðåíèå, â ñâîþ î÷åðåäü, îò÷àñòè âûçûâàåòñÿ ãåíåòè÷åñêèìè ïðè÷èíàìè, ñâÿçü äåïðåññèè è îæèðåíèÿ ñëóæèò ÿðêîé èëëþñòðàöèåé òîãî, êàê ãåíû îïîñðåäîâàííî âëèÿþò íà ìîçã è ñîçíàíèå.

512

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513

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514

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515

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516

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517

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520

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522

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523

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524

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525

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526

Äîñòîåâñêèé Ô. Ì. Ïðåñòóïëåíèå è íàêàçàíèå (Ì.: Ýêñìî, 2006).

527

Êîãäà îáåçóìåâøèé Ëèð ñòðàíñòâóåò â áóðþ ïî ñòåïè âî âòîðîé ñöåíå òðåòüåãî äåéñòâèÿ, òî ïðèçûâàåò íà ñåáÿ ãíåâ ñòèõèé, ÷òîáû óñóãóáèòü ñâîè äóøåâíûå ìóêè:

Íî âû, ïðèñëóæíèêè è ïîäëèïàëû
Ó äî÷åðåé-çëîäååê, ñ íèìè âìåñòå
Ñ íåáåñ ðàçèòå ãîëîâó ñåäóþ
È ñòàðóþ, êàê ýòà.
(Ïåð. Ì. Êóçìèíà)

528

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530

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531

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532

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533

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534

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535

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537

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539

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541

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543

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544

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545

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546

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547

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548

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549

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550

T. M. Brown, «George Engel and Rochester’s Biopsychosocial Tradition: Historical and Developmental Perspectives», â êí.: «The Biopsychosocial Approach: Past, Present, and Future», ed. Richard M. Frankel, Timothy E. Quill, and Susan H. McDaniel (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2003).

551

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552

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553

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554

J. R. Cooper, F. E. Bloom, and R. H. Roth, «The Biochemical Basis of Neuropharmacology» (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003).

555

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556

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557

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558

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559

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560

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561

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562

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563

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564

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565

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566

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567

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568

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570

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571

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572

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573

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574

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575

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580

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582

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583

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584

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585

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586

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587

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588

Tanya Lewis, «How Human Brains Could Be Hacked», LiveScience Blog, https://www.livescience.com/37938-how-human-brain-could-be-hacked.html, 3 èþëÿ 2013 ãîäà.

589

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590

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591

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592

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593

Abby Phillip, «A Paralyzed Woman Flew an F-35 Fighter Jet in a Simulator – Using Only Her Mind», «Washington Post», 3 ìàðòà 2015 ãîäà.

594

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595

John Oliver, «Third Parties», «Last Week Tonight», HBO, 16 îêòÿáðÿ 2016.

596

Zoltan Istvan, «Should a Transhumanist Run for US President?» «Huffington Post», 8 îêòÿáðÿ 2014 ãîäà.

597

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598

A. Roussi, «Now This Is an „Outsider Candidate“: Zoltan Istvan, a Transhumanist Running for President, Wants to Make You Immortal», «Salon», 19 ôåâðàëÿ 2016 ãîäà.

599

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600

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601

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602

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603

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604

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605

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606

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607

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608

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609

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610

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611

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612

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613

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614

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615

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616

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617

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618

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619

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620

Nick Bostrom, «Superintelligence», BookTV Lecture, C-SPAN, 12 ñåíòÿáðÿ 2014 ãîäà. Îöåíêà ïîòîêà çðèòåëüíûõ äàííûõ, ïîñòóïàþùèõ â ìîçã, ó Áîñòðîìà çíà÷èòåëüíî âûøå, ÷åì öèôðû, êîòîðûå ÿ ïðèâîæó â ãëàâå 6, îäíàêî îíà, âåðîÿòíî, îñíîâàíà íå íà èñõîäÿùèõ äàííûõ ñ ñåò÷àòêè â ìîçã, à íà âõîäÿùèõ äàííûõ íà ñåò÷àòêó. Ñåò÷àòêà ñîäåðæèò îêîëî 100 ìèëëèîíîâ ôîòîðåöåïòîðîâ, êîòîðûå ðàçëè÷àþò ñâåò èç îêðóæàþùåé ñðåäû, íî ýòà èíôîðìàöèÿ ñèëüíî ñæèìàåòñÿ è ëèøü ïîòîì ïîêèäàåò ãëàç. Òî, ÷òî ìîçã «âèäèò», íà ñàìîì äåëå ëèøü ñïàéêè, ïåðåíîñèìûå ïðèìåðíî ìèëëèîíîì ãàíãëèîçíûõ êëåòîê ïî ñåò÷àòêå, è òîëüêî îíè ñîñòàâëÿþò èñõîäÿùóþ ñ ñåò÷àòêè èíôîðìàöèþ, ÷òî è ñòàëî îñíîâîé äëÿ ìîåé îöåíêè â 10 ìåãàáàéò â ñåêóíäó íà îäèí ãëàç.

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622

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623

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624

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625

 2014 ãîäó Âåðõîâíûé ñóä ÑØÀ ïðè ðàññìîòðåíèè äåëà «Ðàéëè ïðîòèâ øòàòà Êàëèôîðíèÿ» âûíåñ ðåøåíèå, ÷òî èçó÷àòü ñîäåðæèìîå ñîâðåìåííîãî ñîòîâîãî òåëåôîíà áåç îðäåðà íåêîíñòèòóöèîííî. Ïðåäñåäàòåëü Âåðõîâíîãî ñóäà Äæîí Ðîáåðòñ, âûñòóïàÿ îò èìåíè åäèíîãëàñíîãî áîëüøèíñòâà, ïèñàë, ÷òî ñìàðòôîíû – «íàñòîëüêî âåçäåñóùàÿ è ïîñòîÿííàÿ ñîñòàâëÿþùàÿ ïîâñåäíåâíîé æèçíè, ÷òî ïðåñëîâóòûé ìàðñèàíèí ðåøèë áû, áóäòî ýòî âàæíàÿ ÷àñòü ÷åëîâå÷åñêîé àíàòîìèè»

626

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627

Tim Adams, «Self-Driving Cars: From 2020 You Will Become a Permanent Backseat Driver», «Guardian», 13 ñåíòÿáðÿ 2015 ãîäà.

628

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629

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630

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631

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632

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633

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634

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635

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636

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637

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638

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639

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640

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641

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642

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643

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644

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645

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646

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647

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648

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649

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650

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651

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652

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653

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654

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655

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656

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657

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658

Matt Stefon, ed., «Judaism: History, Belief, and Practice» (New York: Britannica Educational, 2012); Joshua Dickey, ed., «The Complete Koine-English Reference Bible: New Testament, Septuagint and Strong’s Concordance» (Seattle: Amazon Digital Services, 2014) (e-book).

Âåðíóòüñÿ ê ïðîñìîòðó êíèãè Âåðíóòüñÿ ê ïðîñìîòðó êíèãè