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1
Из выступления Билла Клинтона 26 июня 2000 г. (http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0006/26/bn.01.html).
2
Больше о будоражащих перспективах генной инженерии см.: Silver, L. M. (2007). Remaking Eden: How genetic engineering and cloning will transform the American family. New York, NY: Harper Perennial.
3
Об идентификации мусорящих на улице людей по их ДНК и владельцев собак по ДНК их питомцев см.: Mohdin, A. (23.05.2015). New campaign profiles litterers from their DNA and posts reconstructions of their faces. IFLScience. http://www.iflscience.com/environment/could-you-be-next-face-litter; Lacitis, E. (03.04.2015). Dog-poop DNA tests nail non-scoopers. Seattle Times (http://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/dog-poop-dna-tests-nail-non-scoopers/).
4
Конечно, если бы продюсеры программы серьезно относились к определению того, действительно ли этот образец принадлежал Элвису, им достаточно было бы найти образец ДНК его живого родственника.
5
Многие варианты гена MYBPC3 связаны с развитием наследственной гипертрофической кардиомиопатии, которая, по мнению доктора Кингсмора с небольшой вероятностью могла привести к смерти Элвиса. Например, есть аутосомная доминантная мутация гена MYBPC3, которая часто влияет на развитие гипертрофической кардиомиопатии (см.: Dhandapany, P. S., Sadayappan, S., Xue, Y., Powell, G. T., Rani, D. S., Nallari, P., et al. (2009). A common MYBPC3 (cardiac myosin binding protein C) variant associated with cardiomyopathies in South Asia. Nature Genetics, 41, 187–191). Но у Элвиса не было ни одного из патогенных вариантов гена MYBPC3. Вариант Элвиса, который обсуждался в шоу, с нуклеотидом G в RSID193922380, не является сильным предиктором гипертрофической кардиомиопатии и в настоящее время плохо изучен. Его рассматривали только в нескольких медицинских работах наряду с большим количеством различных ДНК-маркеров вдоль одного и того же гена. Разные версии о связи варианта Элвиса с семейной гипертрофической кардиомиопатией колеблются от «сомнительно» до «вероятно» (см.: Rodriguez-Garcia, M. I., Monserrat, L., Ortiz, M., Fernández, X., Cazón, L., Núñez, L., et al. (30.04.2010). Screening mutations in myosin binding protein C3 gene in a cohort of patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. BMC Medical Genetics, 11, 67. doi: 10.1186/1471-2350-11-67; Ehlermann, P., Weichenhan, D., Zehelein, J., Steen, H., Pribe, R., Zeller, R., et al. (28.10.2008). Adverse events in families with hypertrophic or dilated cardiomyopathy and mutations in the MYBPC3 gene. BMC Medical Genetics, 9, 95. doi: 10.1186/1471-2350-9-95; Olivotto, I., Kassem, H., & Girolami, F. (2011). Microvascular function is selectively impaired in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and sarcomere myofilament gene mutations. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 58, 839–848; http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/clinvar/?term=rs193922380; http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/clinvar/variation/36607/).
6
http://www.king-elvis-presley.de/html/death-elvis-autopsy.html.
7
В программе нашли вариант на 19-й хромосоме, но самые сильные предикторы находятся в другом месте (Locke, A. E., Kahali, B., Berndt, S. I., Justice, A. E., Pers, T. H., Day, F. R., et al. (2015). Genetic studies of body mass index yield new insights for obesity biology. Nature, 518, 197–206).
8
В программе нашли вариант на 1-й хромосоме, но есть много других предикторов. Хотя в последнее время их надежность поставлена под сомнение (Palotie, A., Anttila, V., Winsvold, B. S., Gormley, P., Kurth, T., Bettella, F., McMahon, G., et al. (2013). Genome-wide analysis identifies new susceptibility loci for migraine. Nature Genetics, 45, 912–916; De Vries, B., Anttila, V., Freilinger, T., Wessman, M., Kaunisto, M. A., Kallela, M., et al. (2015). Systematic re-evaluation of genes from candidate gene association studies in migraine using a large genome-wide association data set. Cephalalagia).
9
В программе нашли вариант на 17-й хромосоме, но более сильные предикторы находятся в других хромосомах (см.: Bailey, J. N. C., Loomis, S. J., Kang, J. H., Allingham, R. R., Gharahkhani, P., Khor, C. C., et al. (2015). Genome-wide association analysis identifies TXNRD2, ATXN2, and FOXC1 as susceptibility loci for primary open-angle glaucoma. Nature Genetics, 48, 189–194).
10
Guralnick, P. (2000). The unmaking of Elvis Presley. New York, NY: Back Bay Books.
11
http://www.king-elvis-presley.de/html/death-elvis-autopsy.html.
12
http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/andrewmcfbrown/100012805/did-elvis-really-eat-more-than-an-asian-elephant-does/.
13
Dar-Nimrod, I., Cheung, B. Y., Ruby, M. B., & Heine, S. J. (2014). Can merely learning about obesity genes lead to weight gain?Appetite, 81, 269–276.
14
См.: Shear, M. D. (22 июня 2015 г.). Making a point, Obama invokes a painful slur. New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/23/us/obama-racism-marc-maron-podcast.html?hp&action=click&pgtype=Homepage&module=first-column-region®ion=top-news&WT.nav=top-news&_r=0.
15
http://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/pink/badinfluence.html.
16
http://thecelebritycafe.com/feature/2012/09/brad-pitt-talks-gun-control-says-its-our-dna-americans-own-one.
17
Цитата из интервью CNN, 11 февраля 2010 г. (http://www.cnn.com/2010/SHOWBIZ/02/11/donald.trump.marriage.apprentice/).
18
http://blogs.ft.com/businessblog/2013/04/corporate-dna-jargon-is-nothing-to-celebrate/.
19
https://www.genome.gov/10002329.
20
Например, вся редакционная коллегия американского журнала Genetics одобряла евгенику (см.: Paul D. B. (1995). Controlling human heredity: 1865 to the present. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press). Подробнее о связи между ранними исследованиями в области генетики человека и евгеникой см. главу 7.
21
http://www.slate.com/blogs/the_slatest/2013/10/29/rand_paul_gattaca_did_rachel_maddow_catch_rand_paul_plagiarizing_wikipedia.html.
22
См.: Metzl, J. F. (10 октября 2014 г.). The genetics epidemic: The revolution in DNA science and what to do about it. Foreign Affairs (https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2014-10-10/genetics-epidemic); Kahn, Jennifer (09.11.2015). The Crispr quandary. New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/15/magazine/the-crispr-quandary.html?action=click&pgtype=Homepage®ion=CColumn&module=MostEmailed&version=Full&src=me&WT.nav=MostEmailed&_r=0).
23
Более подробная информация о жизни Менделя: Mawer, S. (2006). Gregor Mendel: Planting the seeds of genetics. New York, NY: Abrams; Henig, R. M. (2000). The monk in the garden. New York, NY: Mariner; Orel, V. (1996). Gregor Mendel: The first geneticist. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
24
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v485/n7400/full/nature11119.html.
25
Wu, Q., Zhang, T., Cheng, J.-F., Kim, Y., Grimwood, J. H., Schmutz, J., et al. (2001). Comparative DNA sequence analysis of mouse and human protocaherin gene clusters. Genome Research, 11, 389–404.
26
Welle, S. (1999). Human protein metabolism. New York, NY: Springer.
27
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v488/n7412/full/488467a.html?WT.ec_id=NATURE-20120823.
28
Lamason, R. L., Mohideen, M. A., Mest, J. R., Wong, A. C., Norton, H. L., Aros, M. C., et al. (2005). SLC24A5, a putative cation exchanger, affects pigmentation in zebrafish and humans. Science, 310, 1782–1786.
29
Dias, B. G., & Ressler, K. J. (2014). Parental olfactory experience influences behavior and neural structure in subsequent generations. Nature Neuroscience, 17, 89–96.
30
Galton, F. (1875). The history of twins, as a criterion of the relative powers of nature and nurture. Frasers Magazine, 12, 566–576.
31
Visscher, P. M. (2008). Sizing up human height variation. Nature Genetics, 40, 489–490.
32
Simonson, I., & Sela, A. (2011). On the heritability of consumer decision making: An exploratory approach for studying genetic effects on judgment and choice. Journal of Consumer Research, 37, 951–966; Plomin, R., Corley, R., DeFries, J. C., & Fulker, D. W. (1990). Individual differences in television viewing in early childhood: Nature as well as nurture. Psychological Science, 1, 371–377; Bouchard, T. J. (2004). Genetic influence on human psychological traits: A survey. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13, 148–151; Eaves, L. J., Eysenck, H. J., & Martin, N. G. (1989). Genes, culture and personality: An empirical approach. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; Martin, N. G., Eaves, L. J., Heath, A. R., Jardine, R., Feingold, L. M., & Eysenck, H. J. (1986). Transmission of social attitudes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 83, 4364–4368; Eley, T. C., Lichtenstein, P., & Stevenson, J. (1999). Sex differences in the etiology of aggressive and nonaggressive antisocial behavior: Results from two twin studies. Child Development, 70, 155–168; Iervolino, A. C., Perroud, N., Fullana, M. A., Guipponi, M., Cherkas, L., Collier, D. A., et al. (2009). Prevalence and heritability of compulsive hoarding: A twin study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 1156–1161; Pedersen, O. B., Axel, S., Rostgaard, K., Erikstrup, C., Edgren, G., Nielsen, K. R., et al. (2015). The heritability of blood donation: A population-based nationwide twin study. Transfusion, 55, 2169–2174.
33
Kendler, K. S., & Karkowski-Shuman, L. (1997). Stressful life events and genetic liability to major depression: Genetic control of exposure to the environment?Psychological Medicine, 27, 539–547.
34
Общую критику результатов генетики поведения см.: Charney, E. (2012). Behavior genetics and postgenomics. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 35, 331–358.
35
Turkheimer, E. (2000). Three laws of behavior genetics and what they mean. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 5, 160–164.
36
Turkheimer, E. (1998). Heritability and biological explanation. Psychological Review, 105, 782–791.
37
Polderman, T. J. C., Benyamin, B., de Leeuw, C. A., Sullivan, P. F., van Bochoven, A., Visscher, P. M., et al. (2015). Meta-analysis of the heritability of human traits based on fifty years of twin studies. Nature Genetics. doi: 10.1038/ng.3285.
38
Hugot, J.-P., Chamaillard, M., Zouali, H., Lesage, S., Cézard, J. P., Belaiche, J., et al. (2001). Association of NOD2 leucine-rich repeat variants with susceptibility to Crohn’s disease. Nature, 411, 599–603.
39
Franke, A., McGovern, D. P., Barrett, J. C., Wang, K., Radford-Smith, G. L., Ahmad, T., et al. (2010). Genome-wide meta-analysis increases to 71 the number of confirmed Crohn’s disease susceptibility loci. Nature Genetics, 42, 1118–1125.
40
Worden, G. (2002). Mütter Museum of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia. New York, NY: Blast Books.
41
Song, G.-A., Kim, H.-J., Woo, K.-M., Baek, J.-H., Kim, G.-S., Choi, J.-Y., & Ryoo, H.-M. (2010). Molecular consequences of the ACVR1 R206H mutation of fibrodysplasia ossificans progressive. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 285, 22542–22553.
42
Заболевания, наследуемые по закону Менделя. Прим. науч. ред.
43
Day, N., & Holmes, L. B. (1973). The incidence of genetic disease in a university hospital population. American Journal of Human Genetics, 25, 237–246.
44
Увы, способы возникновения даже моногенных болезней могут быть более сложными, чем простое представление о том, что один ген вызывает заболевание (см.: Badano, J. L., & Katsanis, N. (2002). Beyond Mendel: An evolving view of human genetic disease transmission. Nature Reviews Genetics, 3, 779–789).
45
Тщательный анализ различий между сильным и слабым генетическим влиянием см.: Turkheimer, E. (1998). Heritability and biological explanation. Psychological Review, 105, 782–791.
46
Chabris, C. F., Lee, J. J., Cesarini, D., Benjamin, D. J., & Laibson, D. I. (2015). The fourth law of behavioral genetics. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24, 304–312.
47
Dobbs, D. (21 мая 2015 г.). What is your DNA worth?BuzzFeed (http://www.buzzfeed.com/daviddobbs/weighing-the-promises-of-big-genomics#.vjnnjJzwK).
48
Visscher, P. M. (2008). Sizing up human height variation. Nature Genetics, 40, 489–490.
49
McEvoy, B. P., & Visscher, P. M. (2009). Genetics of human height. Economics & Human Biology, 7, 294–306.
50
См.: Weedon, M. N., Lettre, G., Freathy, R. M., Lindgren, C. M., Voight, B. F., Perry, J. R., et al. (2007). A common variant of HMGA2 is associated with adult and childhood height in the general population. Nature Genetics, 39, 1245–1250.
51
Goldstein, D. B. (2009). Common genetic variation and human traits. New England Journal of Medicine, 360 (17), 1696–1698.
52
Yang, J., Benyamin, B., McEvoy, B. P., Gordon, S., Henders, A. K., Nyholt, D. R., et al. (2010). Common SNPs explain a large proportion of the heritability for human height. Nature Genetics, 42, 565–569. В другом исследовании обнаружили, что 697 вариантов могут объяснить 20 % наследуемости роста (Wood, A. R., Esko, T., Yang, J., Vedantam, S., Pers, T. H., Gustafsson, S., et al. (2014). Defining the role of common variation in the genomic and biological architecture of adult human height. Nature Genetics, 46, 1173–1186).
53
Johnson, W. (2010). Understanding the genetics of intelligence: Can height help? Can corn oil?Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 177–182.
54
Довод в пользу «генов роста» голландцев: доказано, что у более высоких голландских мужчин (но не женщин) было больше потомков в отличие от американцев, где больше потомков оставляли более низкие мужчины (Stulp, G., Barrett, L., Tropf, F. C., & Mills, M. (2015). Does natural selection favour taller stature among the tallest people on earth?Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 282, 20150211. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2015.0211).
55
Komlos, J., & Lauderdale, B. E. (2007). The mysterious trend in human heights in the 20th century. American Journal of Human Biology, 34, 206–215.
56
Greulich, W. W. (1957). A comparison of the physical growth and development of American-born and native Japanese children. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 15, 489–515.
57
Komlos, J., & Breitfelder, A. (2007). Are Americans shorter (partly) because they are fatter? A comparison of US and Dutch children’s height and BMI values. Annals of Human Biology, 34, 593–606.
58
Wiley, A. S. (2005). Does milk make children grow? Relationships between milk consumption and height in NHANES 1999–2002. American Journal of Human Biology, 17, 425–441.
59
По моим расчетам, корреляция между cредним ростом жителей какой-либо страны (более надежные данные – для мужчин) и национальным потреблением молока в пределах континентов находится в диапазоне от 0,3 до 0,7. В то время как во всем мире между странами корреляция составляет 0,82. Cм. данные о сравнении роста мужчин (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template: Average_height_around_the_world) и годового потребления молока (http://chartsbin.com/view/1491).
60
Funatogawa, I., Funatogawa, T., Nakao, M., Karita, K., & Yano, E. (2009). Changes in body mass index by birth cohort in Japanese adults: Results from the National Nutrition survey of Japan 1956–2005. International Journal of Epidemiology, 38, 83–92.
61
Takahashi, E. (1984). Secular trend in milk consumption and growth in Japan. Human Biology, 56, 427–437.
62
Bogin, B. (1999). Patterns of human growth(2nded.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
63
Lamason, R. L., Mohideen, M. A., Mest, J. R., Wong, A. C., Norton, H. L., Aros, M. C., et al. (2005). SlC24A5, a putative cation exchanger, affects pigmentation in zebrafish and humans. Science, 310, 1782–1786.
64
Примеры того, как люди стараются избегать отчетливого понимания чего-либо и выбирают более легкий путь, см.: Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1984). The effects of involvement on responses to argument quantity and quality: Central and peripheral routes to persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 69–81; and Ratneshwar, S., & Chaiken, S. (1991). Comprehension’s role in persuasion: The case of its moderating effect on the persuasive impact of source cues. Journal of Consumer Research, 18, 52–62.
65
Jablonka, E., & Lamb, M. J. (2006). Evolution in four dimensions: Genetic, epigenetic, behavioral, and symbolic variation in the history of life. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. См. также: Strohman, R. (1995). Linear genetics, non-linear epigenetics: Complementary approaches to understanding complex diseases. Integrative Physiological and Behavioral Science, 30 (4), 273–282.
66
Sturtevant, A. H. (1965). A history of genetics. New York, NY: Harper and Row.
67
Менделю действительно повезло с результатами его исследований. В случае с горохом они были настолько ясными, что ученого обвинили в подделке данных. Рональд Фишер, знаменитый специалист по статистике и генетик, наиболее упорно ставит под сомнение достоверность выводов Менделя (Fisher, R. A. (1936). Has Mendel’s work been rediscovered?Annals of Science, 1, 115–137).
68
Henig, R. M. (2000). The monk in the garden. New York, NY: Mariner.
69
См.: Lombroso, C. (2006). Criminal Man (M. Gibson & N. H. Rafter, Trans.). Durham, NC: Duke University Press. P. 5. Это издание содержит новый перевод с введением и заметками переводчиков Мэри Гибсон и Николь Хан Рафтер.
70
Macnamara, J. (1986). A border dispute. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
71
Locke, J. (1671/1959). An essay concerning human understanding, Vol. 2. New York, NY: Dover.
72
Medin, D. L., & Ortony, A. (1989). Psychological essentialism. In S. Vosniadou & A. Ortony (Eds.),Similarity and analogical reasoning(p. 179–195). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
73
Более подробно об эссенциализме см.: Gelman, S. A. (2003). The essential child: Origins of essentialism in everyday thought. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
74
Nemeroff, C., & Rozin, P. (1989). You are what you eat: Applying the demand-free «impressions» technique to an unacknowledged belief. Ethos, 17, 50–69.
75
См. Goldman, L. R. (Ed.). (1999). The anthropology of cannibalism. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
76
Я благодарен Франсиско Гил-Уайту за описание эссенциалистского мышления. Более подробный анализ роли сущностей в естественных видах см.: Gil-White, F. J. (2001). Are ethnic groups biological «species» to the human brain? Essentialism in our cognition of some social categories. Current Anthropology, 42, 515–554.
77
Ereshefsky, M. (2004). The poverty of the Linnaean hierarchy. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
78
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-558256/I-given-young-mans-heart-started-craving-beer-Kentucky-Fried-Chicken-My-daughter-said-I-walked-like-man.html.
79
Sylvia, C., & Novak, W. (1997). A change of heart. New York, NY: Warner Books.
80
Inspector, I., Kutz, Y., & David, D. (2004). Another person’s heart: Magical and rational thinking in the psychological adaptation to heart transplantation. The Israeli Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences, 41, 161–173.
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Hood, B. M., Gjersoe, N. L., Donnelly, K., Byers, A., & Itakura, S. (2011). Moral contagion attitudes towards potential organ transplants in British and Japanese adults. Journal of Cognition and Culture, 11, 269–286.
82
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-557864/Man-given-heart-suicide-victim-marries-donors-widow-kills-exactly-way.html.
83
Nemeroff, C., & Rozin, P. (1994). The contagion concept in adult thinking in the United States: Transmission of germs of interpersonal influence. Ethos, 22, 158–186.
84
Психологи обычно предполагают, что большинство психологических явлений универсальны. Поэтому они редко проводят более дорогостоящие и сложные исследования, необходимые для изучения культурных различий способов мышления. Чаще всего изучаются удобные группы, которые, как правило, составляют американские студенты, посещающие лекции по психологии. Студенты американских колледжей более чем в 4000 раз чаще участвуют в психологических экспериментах в сравнении со взрослыми людьми из незападных стран. В психологии преобладают американские исследования, а также работы ученых из других англоязычных стран, таких как Великобритания, Канада и Австралия. Поэтому в случае со многими психологическими явлениями мы действительно не очень хорошо понимаем, насколько похожи или различаются способы мышления во всем мире. Исследование эссенциализма, напротив, было глобальным предприятием (Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 61–83).
85
Gil-White, F. J. (2001). Are ethnic groups biological «species» to the human brain? Essentialism in our cognition of some social categories. Current Anthropology, 42, 515–554.
86
Склонность к эссенциалистскому мышлению не так сильна среди представителей разных азиатских культур, таких как Китай, Япония и Индия (хотя ее наличие подтверждено и там), как у людей из Северной Америки (см., например: Choi, I., Nisbett, R. E., & Norenzayan, A. (1999). Causal attribution across cultures: Variation and universality. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 47–63; Rattan, A., Savani, K. S., Naidu, N. V. R., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). Can everyone become highly intelligent? Cultural differences in and societal consequences of beliefs about the universal potential for intelligence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, 787–802; and Heine, S. J., Kitayama, S., Lehman, D. R., Takata, T., Ide, E., Leung, C., & Matsumoto, H. (2001). Divergent consequences of success and failure in Japan and North America: An investigation of self-improving motivations and malleable selves. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 599–615).
87
Kraus, M. W., & Keltner, D. (2013). Social class rank, essentialism, and punitive judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105, 247–261. См. также: Kraus, M. W., Piff, P. K., Mendoza-Denton, R., Rheinschmidt, M. L., & Kelter, D. (2012). Social class, solipsism, and contextualism: How the rich are different from the poor. Psychological Review, 119, 546–572.
88
Mahalingam, R. (1998). Essentialism, power, and representation of caste: A developmental study. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pittsburgh.
89
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См.: Bieber, I., Dain, H. J., Dince, P. R., Drellich, M. G., Grand, H. G., Gundlach, R. R., et al. (1962). Homosexuality: A psychoanalytic study of male homosexuals. New York, NY: Basic Books.
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См.: Conrad, P., & Markens, S. (2001). Constructing the «gay gene» in the news: Optimism and skepticism in the US and British press. Health: An Interdisciplinary Journal for the Social Study of Health, Illness and Medicine, 5, 373–400.
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Служитель, которому доверяют совершать обрезание в иудаизме. Прим. перев.
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Gorondi, P. (10.06.2014). Anti-Semitic, far-right politician’s astonishing transformation after finding out he is a Jew. National Post (http://news.nationalpost.com/2014/06/10/anti-semitic-far-right-politicians-astonishing-transformation-after-finding-out-he-is-a-jew/). См. также: Ain, S. (21 октября 2014 г.). New life, New mission for Ex-Jobbik leader. The Jewish Week (http://www.thejewishweek.com/news/international/new-life-new-mission-ex-jobbik-leader).
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Обширное исследование причин нашего увлечения генеалогией см.: Zerubavel, E. (2012). Ancestors & relatives. Genealogy, identity, & community. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
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Royal, C. D., Novembre, J., Fullerton, S. M., Goldstein, D. B., Long, J. C., Bamshad, M. J., & Clark, A. G. (2010). Inferring genetic ancestry: Opportunities, challenges, and implications. The American Journal of Human Genetics, 86, 661–673.
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257
Вычисление скорости генетических мутаций является ключевым для точной оценки дат миграции (Scally, A., & Durbin, R. (2012). Revising the human mutation rate: Implications for understanding human evolution. Nature Reviews Genetics, 13, 745–753).
258
См.: Mellars, P., Gori, K. C., Carr, M., Soares, P. A., & Richards, M. B. (2013). Genetic and archaeological perspectives on the initial modern human colonization of Southern Asia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110, 10699–10704.
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Подробный обзор миграций первых людей см.: Bellwood, P. (2014). First migrants: Ancient migration in global perspective. West Sussex, UK: Wiley.
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Доказательствами такой структуры миграции людей служат также различия между языковыми семьями и распределение их в мире. См.: Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. (2000). Genes, people, and languages. New York, NY: Farrar Straus & Giroux.
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Underhill, P. A., Shen, P., Lin, A. A., Jin, L., Passarino, G., Yang, W. H., et al. (2000). Y chromosome sequence variation and the history of human populations. Nature Genetics, 26, 358–361. Более поздние анализы показывают, что Y-хромосомному Адаму может быть 156 тыс. лет (Poznik, G. D., Henn, B. M., Yee, M. C., Sliwerska, E., Euskirchen. G. M., Lin, A. A., et al. (2013). Sequencing Y chromosomes resolves discrepancy in time to common ancestor of males versus females. Science, 341, 562–565).
263
Причина, по которой наш общий предок по отцовской линии находится ближе к нам, чем по материнской, заключается в большем разбросе в количестве детей среди мужчин. У некоторых представителей сильного пола рождаются сотни сыновей и дочерей, в то время как большинство женщин, как правило, имеют примерно одинаковое число детей. Следовательно, нам не нужно далеко ходить, чтобы найти общего предка по отцовской линии.
264
Bellis, C., Hughes, R. M., Begley, K. N., Quinlan, S., Lea, R. A., Heath, S. C., et al. (2005). Phenotypical characterisation of the isolated Norfolk Island population focusing on epidemiological indicators of cardiovascular disease. Human Heredity, 60, 211–219.
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См. Elhaik, E., Tatarinova, T., Chebotarev, D., Piras, I. S., Maria Calò, C., De Montis, A., et al. (2014). Geographic population structure analysis of worldwide human populations infers their biogeographical origins. Nature Communications, 5, 3513. doi: 10.1038/ncomms4513.
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Оценка фактической процентной доли каждого из наших предков несколько затруднена, поскольку мы наследуем ДНК от родителей частями посредством мейоза. Из-за этого некоторые наши далекие предки не оставили следов своей ДНК в нашем геноме (Royal, C. D., Novembre, J., Fullerton, S. M., Goldstein, D. B., Long, J. C., Bamshad, M. J., et al. (2010). Inferring genetic ancestry: Opportunities, challenges, and implications. The American Journal of Human Genetics, 86, 661–673).
269
Проводится ежегодно в феврале в США и Канаде. Прим. ред.
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Детальное исследование опыта генетического тестирования афроамериканцев см.: Nelson, A. (2008). Bio science: Genetic ancestry testing and the pursuit of African ancestry. Social Studies of Science, 38, 759–783.
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Nelson, A. (2008). Genetic genealogy testing and the pursuit of African ancestry. Social Studies of Science, 38, 759–783.
272
Здесь и далее цит. по: https://chancellorfiles.wordpress.com/2008/02/27/wayne-joseph-thought-he-was-black.
273
Любопытно, что у нашей семьи была другая версия истории моей бабушки по материнской линии. Но через 23andMe со мной связался человек, которого компания определила в качестве моего четверо- или пятиюродного брата из-за наших общих генов. Он рассказал мне более правильную историю моей бабушки по матери.
274
Гаплогруппа – это группа людей, разделяющих гаплотип.
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Данные об изменении населения Земли с течением времени см.: http://themasites.pbl.nl/tridion/en/themasites/hyde/basicdrivingfactors/population/index-2.html.
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Больше информации о браках между родственниками см.: Bittles, A. H. (2001). Consanguinity and its relevance to clinical genetics. Clinical Genetics, 60, 89–98.
277
См.: http://cnsnews.com/news/article/obama-distant-cousins-palin-limbaugh-bush and http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9900E4D61131F935A15750C0A96E9C8B63&ref=amyharmon.
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Olson, S. (2002). Mapping human history. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin.
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Доводы о детях Иисуса см.: Baigent, M., Leigh, R., & Lincoln, H. (2004). Holy blood, holy grail. New York, NY: Dell.
282
См.: Olson, S. (15.03.2006). Why we’re all Jesus’s children. Slate (http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2006/03/why_were_all_jesus_children.html).
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См.: Koerner, B. I. (2005, Sep.). Blood feud. Wired Magazine (http://archive.wired.com/wired/archive/13.09/seminoles.html).
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См.: Harmon, A. (12.04.2006). Seeking ancestry in DNA ties uncovered by tests. New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/12/us/12genes.html).
291
Travis, J. (29.09.2009). Scientists decry «flawed» and «horrifying» national tests. Science Insider (http://news.sciencemag.org/2009/09/scientists-decry-flawed-and-horrifying-nationality-tests); Hill, R., & Henderson, M. (17.06.2011). DNA test for bogus refugees scrapped as expensive flop. The Times (http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/uk/article3064981.ece).
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Оценки тенденций генетического эссенциализма см.: Dar-Nimrod, I., Ruby, M. B., Cheung, B. Y., Tam, K., & Murray, D. (2014, Feb.). The four horsemen of genetic essentialism: Theoretical underpinnings, methodological advancements, and empirical findings. Symposium presented at the 2014 Society for Personality and Social Psychology Annual Meeting, Austin, TX, USA.
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Оценки ориентации на социальное доминирование см.: Pratto, F., Sidanius, J., Stallworth, L. M., & Malle, B. F. (1994). Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 741–763.
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Оценки масштабов современного расизма см.: McConahay, J. B. (1986). Modern racism, ambivalence, and the Modern Racism Scale. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.),Prejudice, discrimination, and racism(p. 91–125). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
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Оценки авторитаризма консервативной направленности см.: Rattazzi, A. M. M., & Canova, A. B. L. (2007). A short version of the Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) Scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 1223–1234.
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В нескольких разных исследованиях выявили следующие корреляции: между тенденциями генетического эссенциализма (ТГЭ) и социальной доминацией: r = 0,24, r = 0,25 и r = 0,35; между ТГЭ и правым авторитаризмом: r = 0,21 и r = 0,30; между ТГЭ и современным расизмом: r = 0,27 и r = 0,24 (Cheung, B. Y., Ream, A., & Heine, S. J. (2015). Correlations of the Genetic Essentialist Tendencies Scale. Не опубликовано).
300
См.: Keller, J. (2005). In genes we trust: The biological component of psychological essentialism and its relationship to mechanisms of motivated social cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 686–702; Jayaratne, T. E., Ybarra, O., Sheldon, J. P., Brown, T. N., Feldbaum, M., Pfeffer, C. A., & Petty, E. M. (2006). White Americans’ genetic lay theories of race differences and sexual orientation: Their relationship with prejudice toward Blacks, gay men and lesbians. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 9, 77–94; Jayaratne, T., Gelman, S., Feldbaum, M., Sheldon, J., Petty, E., & Kardia, S. (2009). The perennial debate: Nature, nurture, or choice? Black and White Americans’ explanations for individual differences. Review of General Psychology, 13, 24–33.
301
Latin lover – английское выражение, означает «страстный любовник, донжуан». Прим. перев.
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http://www.nbcnews.com/id/21362732/ns/us_news-life/t/race-remarks-get-nobel-winner-trouble/#.n6Z30Dcqbd4/.
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http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2007/12/21/lyons-curious-return-race-2007-91944/.
304
См.: Sampanis, M. (2003). Preserving power through coalitions: Comparing the grand strategy of Great Britain and the United States. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
305
Письмо с осуждением книги Уэйда см.: http://cehg.stanford.edu/letter-from-population-geneticists/.
306
Подробнее см.: Heine, S. J. (2016). Cultural Psychology(3rded.). New York, NY: W. W. Norton. См. также: Diamond, J. (1998). Guns, germs, and steel. New York, NY: W. W. Norton; Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J. A. (2013). Why nations fail: The origins of power, prosperity, and poverty. New York, NY: Crown; Landes, D. S. (1999). The wealth and poverty of nations. New York, NY: W. W. Norton; Ferguson, N. (2011). Civilization: The West and the rest. New York, NY: Penguin.
307
Haidt, J. (2012). The righteous mind (p. 429). New York, NY: Vintage Books.
308
См.: Needham, J. (1956). Science and civilisation in China, Vol. 2. History of scientific thought. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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Подробное описание разногласий и научных ошибок в медицине, основанной на расовых признаках, см.: Kahn, J. (2014). Race in a bottle: The story of Bidil and racialized medicine in a post-genomic age. New York, NY: Columbia University Press; Bliss, C. (2012). Race decoded: The genomic fight for social justice. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press; Jones, D. (2013). The prospects of personalized medicine. In S. Krimsky & J. Gruber (Eds.),Genetic explanations: Sense and Nonsense. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
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Center for Disease Control (2004). National Center for Health Statistics (http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/tables/2003/03hus066.pdf).
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Cooper, R. S., Rotimi, C., Ataman, S., McGee, D., Osotimehin, B., Kadiri, S., et al. (1997). The prevalence of hypertension in seven populations of West African origin. American Journal of Public Health, 87, 160–168. Akinkugbe, O. O. (1987). World epidemiology of hypertension in Blacks. Journal of Clinical Hypertension, 3, 1s-8s.
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Wilson, T. W., & Grim, C. E. (1991). Biohistory of slavery and blood pressure differences in blacks today. A hypothesis. Hypertension, 17, I122–I129. Grim, C. E., & Robinson M. (1996). Blood pressure variation in blacks: Genetic factors. Seminars in Nephrology, 16, 83–93.
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Критику каждого аспекта гипотезы о рабстве см.: Curtin, P. D. (1992). The slavery hypothesis for hypertension among African Americans: The historical evidence. American Journal of Public Health, 82, 1681–1686. См. также: Cooper, R., & Rotimi, C. (1994). Hypertension in populations of West African origin: Is there a genetic predisposition?Journal of Hypertension, 12, 215–227; Dressler, W. W., Oths, K. S., & Gravlee, C. C. (2005). Race and ethnicity in public health research: Models to explain health disparities. Annual Review of Anthropology, 34, 231–252.
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Kaufman, J. S., & Hall, S. A. (2003). The slavery hypertension hypothesis: Dissemination and appeal of a modern race theory. Epidemiology, 14, 111–118.
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См. также: Gravlee, C. C., Dressler, W. W., & Bernard, H. R. (2005). Skin color, social classification, and blood pressure in Southeastern Puerto Rico. American Journal of Public Health, 95, 2191–2197; Sweet, E., McDade, T. W., Kiefe, C. I., & Liu, K. (2007). Relationships between skin color, income, and blood pressure among African Americans in the CARDIA study. American Journal of Public Health, 97, 2253–2259; Non, A. L., Gravlee, C. C., & Mulligan, C. J. (2012). Education, genetic ancestry, and blood pressure in African Americans and Whites. American Journal of Public Health, 102, 1559–1565.
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Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., & Feldman, M. W. (2003). The application of molecular genetic approaches to the study of human evolution. Nature Genetics, 33, 266–275; Caspari, R. (2010). Deconstructing race: Racial thinking, geographic variation, and implications for biological anthropology. In C. S. Larsen (Ed.),A companion to biological anthropology(p. 104–122). Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell; Ramachandran, S., Deshpande, O., Roseman, C. C., Rosenberg, N. A., Feldman, M. W., & Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. (2005). Support from the relationship of genetic and geographic distance in human populations for a serial founder effect originating in Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102, 15942–15947.
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Подробный анализ этого довода см.: Templeton, A. R. (2013). Biological races in humans. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, 44, 262–271.
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См.: Smith, H. M., Chiszar, D., & Montanucci, R. R. (1997). Subspecies and classification. Herpetological Review, 28, 13–16.
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Weiss, K. M., & Long, J. C. (2009). Non-Darwinian estimation: My ancestors, my genes’ ancestors. Genome Research, 19, 703–710. Relethford, J. H. (2009). Race and global patterns of phenotypic variation. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 139, 16–22.
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См. Smith, H. M., Chiszar, D., & Montanucci, R. R. (1997). Subspecies and classification. Herpetological Review, 28, 13–16.
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См.: Templeton, A. R. (2013). Biological races in humans. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, 44, 262–271. Подробнее об оценке 4,3 % см.: Rosenberg, N. A., Pritchard, J. K., Weber, J. L., Cann, H. M., Kidd, K. K., Zhivotovsky, L. A., et al. (2002). Genetic structure of human populations. Science, 298, 2381–2385. Используя гораздо меньше генетических маркеров, Ричард Левонтин ранее сделал известный вывод о том, что на расы приходится 6,3 % генетической изменчивости человека (Lewontin, R. (1972). The apportionment of human diversity. Evolutionary Biology, 6, 396–397).
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Hunley, K. L., Healy, M. E., & Long, J. C. (2009). The global pattern of gene identity variation reveals a history of long-range migrations, bottlenecks, and local mate exchange: Implications for biological race. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 139, 35–46; Templeton, A. R. (1998). Human races: A genetic and evolutionary perspective. American Anthropologist, 100, 632–650.
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Обсуждение этой темы см.: Henrich, J. (2015). The secret of our success: How culture is driving human evolution, domesticating our species, and making us smarter. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
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Исследование 2002 г. (Rosenberg, N. A., Pritchard, J. K., Weber, J. L., Cann, H. M., Kidd, K. K., Zhivotovsky, L. A., et al. Genetic structure of human populations. Science, 298, 2381–2385) часто цитируется в поддержку идеи о том, что гены людей объединились в пять разных континентальных рас (африканскую, европейскую, азиатскую, австралийскую и индейскую). Обширная дискуссия по этому поводу приводится в книге Николаса Уэйда 2014 г. (A troublesome inheritance. New York, NY: Penguin Press). Но надо отметить два важных момента. Во-первых, использованный метод не охватывает кластеризацию генов, получившихся путем естественного отбора. Он в значительной степени основан на изучении генов, которые стали следствием генетического дрейфа. То есть результаты исследования говорят скорее о том, какие группы людей скрещивались друг с другом, а не о существовавших на тот или иной момент кластерах адаптивных признаков. Во-вторых, гораздо более сомнительным в интерпретации Уэйда является то, что это исследование не обосновывает существование именно пяти различных континентальных кластеров. Число кластеров для анализа определяется самим ученым. А в этом исследовании нашлись аргументы для любого количества кластеров от 4 до 20. Нет никаких доказательств того, что человеческие гены объединились в пять континентальных групп, которые соответствуют представлениям людей о расах (см.: Bolnick, D. A. (2008). Individual ancestry inference and the reification of race as a biological phenomenon. In Koenig, B. A., Lee, S. S., & Richardson, S. S. (Eds.),Revisiting Race in a Genomic Age(p. 70–101). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press; Rosenberg, N. A., Pritchard, J. K., Weber, J. L., Cann, H. M., Kidd, K. K., Zhivotovsky, L. A., et al. (2002). Genetic structure of human populations. Science, 298, 2381–2385).
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Jorde, L. B., & Wooding, S. P. (2004). Genetic variation, classification and «race». Nature Genetics, 36, S28–S33; Gravlee, C. G. (2009). How race becomes biology: Embodiment of social inequality. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 139, 47–57.
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Coop, G., Pickrell, J. K., Novembre, J., Kudaravalli, S., Li, J., Absher, D., et al. (2009). The role of geography in human adaptation. PLoS Genetics, 5, e1000500.
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Wade, N. (2014). A troublesome inheritance. New York, NY: Penguin Press.
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См. также: Yudell, M., Roberts, D., DeSalle, R., & Tishkoff, S. (2016). Taking race out of human genetics. Science, 351, 564–565.
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Templeton, A. R. (2013). Biological races in humans. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, 44, 262–271. См. также: Santos, R. V., Fry, P. H., Monteiro, S., Maio, M. C., Rodrigues, J. C., Bastos-Rodrigues, L., et al. (2009). Color, race, and genomic ancestry in Brazil. Current Anthropology, 50, 787–819.
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Англ. hypodescent – принцип «происхождения по низшей группе». Прим. перев.
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Обратите внимание на то, что степень, в которой регламентируется гипонаследование, сильно варьируется в разных группах. Во многих племенах коренных американцев требуется значительная часть племенной крови, чтобы кто-то мог претендовать на членство (см.: Snipp, C. M. (2003). Racial measurement in the American census: Past practices and implications for the future. Annual Review of Sociology, 29, 563–588).
332
Grant, M. (1916). The passing of the great race. New York, NY: Scribner.
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Ho, A. K., Sidanius, J., Levin, D. T., & Banaji, M. R. (2011). Evidence for hypodescent and racial hierarchy in the categorization and perception of biracial individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 492–506.
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Williams, M., & Eberhardt, J. (2008). Biological conceptions of race and the motivation to cross racial boundaries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 1033–1047.
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См. также: Phelan, J. C., Link, S. Z., & Yang, L. H. (2014). Direct-to-consumer racial admixture tests and beliefs about essential racial differences. Social Psychology Quarterly, 77, 296–318; and Phelan, J. C., Link, B. G., & Feldman, N. M. (2013). The genomic revolution and beliefs about essential racial differences: A backdoor to eugenics?American Sociological Review, 78, 167–191.
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No, S., Hong, Y., Liao, H., Lee, K., Wood, D., & Chao, M. (2008). Lay theory of race affects and moderates Asian Americans’ responses toward American culture. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 991–1004. Концептуально схожие выводы см.: Chao, M., Chen, J., Roisman, G., & Hong, Y. (2007). Essentializing race: Implications for bicultural individuals’ cognition and physiological reactivity. Psychological Science, 18, 341–348.
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Ambrose, S. H. (1998). Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans. Journal of Human Evolution, 34, 623–651.
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Fu, Q., Mittnik, A., Johnson, P. L., Bos, K., Lari, M., Bollongino, R., et al. (2013). A revised timescale for human evolution based on ancient mitochondrial genomes. Current Biology, 23, 553–559.
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Gonder, M. K., Locatelli, S., Ghobrial, L., Mitchell, M. W., Kujawski, J. T., Lankester, F. J., et al. (2011). Evidence from Cameroon reveals differences in the genetic structure and histories of chimpanzee populations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 108, 4766–4771.
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Becquet, C., Patterson, N., Stone, A. C., Przeworski, M., & Reich, D. (2007). Genetic structure of chimpanzee populations. PLoS Genetics, 3, e66. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.0030066.
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http://www.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0006/26/bn.01.html.
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Цит. по: Collins, F. S. (2010). The language of life(p. 147). New York, NY: Harper.
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Kimel, S. Y., Huesmann, R., Kunst, J. R., & Halperin, E. (2016). Living in a genetic world: How learning about interethnic genetic similarities and differences affects peace and conflict. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 42, 688–700.
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Schmalor, A., Cheung, B. Y., & Heine, S. J. (2015). Exploring people’s thoughts about the causes of ethnic stereotypes. Unpublished data. University of British Columbia.
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Еще один пример преимущества второй истории см.: Kang, S. K., Plaks, J. E., & Remedios, J. D. (2015). Folk beliefs about genetic variation predict avoidance of biracial individuals. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 357. См. также: Plaks, J. E., Malahy, L. W., Sedlins, M., & Shoda, Y. (2012). Folk beliefs about human genetic variations predict discrete versus continuous racial categorization and evaluative bias. Social Psychological and PersonalityScience, 3, 31–39.
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Burt, C. (1934). Studying the minds of others. In C. Burt (Ed.),How the mind works(p. 28). London, England: Unwin Brothers.
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Deary, I. J., Lawn, M., & Bartholomew, D. J. (2008). A conversation between Charles Spearman, Godfrey Thomson, and Edward L. Thorndike: The International Examinations Inquiry Meetings 1931–1938 (Vol. 11, p. 122). History of Psychology, 11, 163.
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Heine, S. J., Kitayama, S., Lehman, D. R., Takata, T., Ide, E., Leung, C., & Matsumoto, H. (2001). Divergent consequences of success and failure in Japan and North America: An investigation of self-improving motivations and malleable selves. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 599–615.
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Правильный ответ – «квадрат» (square): справедливая сделка (Square Deal), сытная трапеза (Square Meal), квадратный колышек/прищепка (Square Peg – идиома, обозначает человека, находящегося не на своем месте).
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Очень подробное и интересное исследование этой работы см.: Dweck, C. (2007). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York, NY: Ballantine.
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Asbury, K., & Plomin, R. (2014). G is for genes. West Sussex, UK: Wiley.
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Nisbett, R. E. (2009). Intelligence and how to get it(p. 45–46). New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
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Chabris, C. F., Hebert, B. M., Benjamin, D. J., Beauchamp, J. P., Cesarini, D., van der Loos, M. J. H. M., et al. (2012). Most reported genetic associations with general intelligence are probably false positives. Psychological Science, 23, 1314–1323.
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Kirkpatrick, R. M., McGue, M., Iacono, W. G., Miller, M. B., & Basu, S. (2014). Results of a «GWAS Plus»: General cognitive ability is substantially heritable and massively polygenic. PLoS One, 9, e112390; Butcher, L. M., Davis, O. S. P., Craig, I. W., & Plomin, R. (2008). Genome-wide quantitative trait locus association scan of general cognitive ability using pooled DNA and 500K single nucleotide polymorphism microarrays. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 7, 435–446; Franic, S., Dolan, C. V., Broxholme, J., Hu, H., Zemojtel, J., Davies, G. E., et al. (2015). Mendelian and polygenic inheritance of intelligence: A common set of causal genes. Using next-generation sequencing to examine the effects of 168 intellectual disability genes on normal-range intelligence. Intelligence, 49, 10–22.
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Rietveld, C. A., Esko, T., Davies, G., Pers, T. H., Turley, P., Benyamin, B., et al. (2014). Common genetic variants associated with cognitive performance identified using the proxy-phenotype method. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111, 13790–13794.
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Davies, G., Tenesa, A., Payton, A., Yang, J., Harris, S. E., Liewald, D., et al. (2011). Genome-wide association studies establish that human intelligence is highly heritable and polygenic. Molecular Psychiatry, 16, 996–1005; Chabris, C. F., Hebert, B. M., Benjamin, D. J., Beauchamp, J. P., Cesarini, D., van der Loos, M. J. H. M., et al. (2012). Most reported genetic associations with general intelligence are probably false positives. Psychological Science, 23, 1314–1323.
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Johnson, W. (2010). Understanding the genetics of intelligence: Can height help? Can corn oil?Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 177–182; Benyamin, B., Pourcain, B., Davis, O. S., Davies, G., Hansell, N. K., Brion, M. J., et al. (2014). Childhood intelligence is heritable, highly polygenic and associated with FNBP1L. Molecular Psychiatry, 19, 253–258.
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Полногеномный анализ образовательного уровня позволил исследователям предсказать приблизительно 2,5 балла IQ для каждого допустимого отклонения полигенных баллов человека, рассчитанных по чипу ОНП (см. Belsky, D. W., Moffitt, T. E., Corcoran, D. L., Domingue, B., Harrington, H., Hogan, S., et al. (2016). The genetics of success: How single-nucleotide polymorphisms associated with educational attainment relate to life-course development. Psychological Science).
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Bouchard, T. J., Jr. (1998). Genetic and environmental influences on adult intelligence and special mental abilities. Human Biology, 70, 257–279; Deary, I. J., Johnson, W., & Houlihan, L. (2009). Genetic foundations of human intelligence. Human Genetics, 126, 215–232.
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Веский аргумент в пользу этого см.: Nisbett, R. E., Aronson, J., Blair, C., Dickens, W., Flynn, J., Halpern, D. F., et al. (2012). Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments. American Psychologist, 67, 130–159.
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Scarr-Salapatek, S. (1971). Race, social class, and IQ. Science, 174, 1285–1295; Rowe, D. C., Jacobson, K. C., & Van den Oord, E. J. C. G. (1999). Genetic and environmental influences on vocabulary IQ: Parental education level as moderator. Child Development, 70, 1151–1162; Turkheimer, E., Haley, A., Waldron, M., D’Onofrio, B., & Gottesman, I. (2003). Socioeconomic status modifies heritability of IQ in young children. Psychological Science, 14, 623–628. Любопытно, что влияние социального статуса на наследуемость интеллекта более выражено в Соединенных Штатах, чем где-либо еще (см.: Tucker-Drop, E. M., & Bates, T. C. (2015). Large cross-national differences in gene × socioeconomic status interaction on intelligence. Psychological Science). Это может быть результатом большего неравенства доходов. В местах с более высоким уровнем социального обеспечения, например в Европе, нет таких серьезных различий в оценках наследуемости IQ между богатыми и бедными.
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Обсуждение этого вопроса см.: Nisbett, R. E. (2009). Intelligence and how to get it. New York, NY: W. W. Norton; and Stoolmiller, M. (1999). Implications of the restricted range of family environments for estimates of heritability and nonshared environment in behavior-genetic adoption studies. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 392–409.
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Nisbett, R. E. (2009). Intelligence and how to get it. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
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Stoolmiller, M. (1999). Implications of the restricted range of family environments for estimates of heritability and nonshared environment in behavior-genetic adoption studies. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 392–409.
365
Dillman, D. A. (1978). Mail and telephone surveys: The Total Design Method. New York, NY: Wiley. Обсуждение см.: Nisbett, R. E., Aronson, J., Blair, C., Dickens, W., Flynn, J., Halpern, D. F., et al. (2012). Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments. American Psychologist, 67, 130–159.
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Подробный обзор литературы по теме см.: Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 61–83.
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Обсуждение этого вопроса см.: Nisbett, R. E. (2009). Intelligence and how to get it. New York, NY: W. W. Norton. P. 37–38.
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Greulich, W. W. (1957). A comparison of the physical growth and development of American-born and native Japanese children. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 15, 489–515.
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Nisbett, R. E., Aronson, J., Blair, C., Dickens, W., Flynn, J., Halpern, D. F., et al. (2012). Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments. American Psychologist, 67, 130–159; Duyme, M., Dumaret, A., & Tomkiewicz, S. (1999). How can we boost IQs of «dull» children? A late adoption study. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 96, 8790–8794; Moore, E. C. J. (1986). Family socialization and the IQ test performance of traditionally and transracially adopted Black children. Developmental Psychology, 22, 317–326; Van Ijzendoorn, M. H., Juffer, F., & Poelhuis, C. W. K. (2005). Adoption and cognitive development: A meta-analytic comparison of adopted and nonadopted children’s IQ and school performance. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 301–316.
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Brockman, J. (Ed). (2006). What is your dangerous idea?New York, NY: Harper.
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Herrnstein, R. J., & Murray, C. (1994). The bell curve. New York, NY: Free Press.
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Snyderman, M., & Rothman, S. (1988). The IQ controversy: The media and public policy. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.
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Rosenberg, N. A., Pritchard, J. K., Weber, J. L., Cann, H. M., Kidd, K. K., Zhivotovsky, L. A., et al. (2002). Genetic structure of human populations. Science, 298, 2381–2385.
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Dickens, W. T., & Flynn, J. R. (2006). Black Americans reduce the racial IQ gap: Evidence from standardization samples. Psychological Science, 17, 913–920.
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Nisbett, R. E., Aronson, J., Blair, C., Dickens, W., Flynn, J., Halpern, D. F., et al. (2012). Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments. American Psychologist, 67, 130–159.
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Можно найти и другие подтверждения различий в образовательных возможностях между людьми разных рас и их влияния на интеллект. У черных детей, усыновленных белыми семьями, показатели IQ были примерно на 13 пунктов выше, чем у черных детей, воспитываемых в приемных семьях афроамериканцев. Следует отметить, что те усыновленные, у которых оба биологических родителя были темнокожими, не отличались по набранным баллам теста на интеллект от тех приемных детей, у которых один из родителей был черным, а второй – белым. Это дополнительный аргумент в пользу отказа от расовых теорий различия IQ (см.: Moore, E. G. J. (1986). Family socialization and the IQ test performance of traditionally and transracially adopted Black children. Developmental Psychology, 22, 317–326).
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См.: Nisbett, R. E., Aronson, J., Blair, C., Dickens, W., Flynn, J., Halpern, D. F., et al. (2012). Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments. American Psychologist, 67, 130–159.
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Из альфа-теста времен Первой мировой войны, который использовался для оценки интеллекта грамотных новобранцев. См.: Rafter, N. (2008). The criminal mind. New York, NY: New York University Press. P. 136. См. также: Paul, D. B. (1995). Controlling human heredity: 1865 to the present. Amherst, NY: Humanity Books. P. 66.
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Эти данные еще не опубликованы. Они являются частью исследований, проведенных Дунканом Стиббардом-Хоксом и Кореном Апичелла. Личное сообщение Корена Апичелла от 9 июня 2015 г.
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См.: Lombroso, C. (2006). Criminal man (M. Gibson & N. H. Rafter, Trans.). Durham, NC: Duke University Press. P. 51.
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Тем не менее отношение ширины к высоте лица может помочь предсказать, какие хоккеисты будут вести себя наиболее агрессивно (Carre, J. M., & McCormick, C. M. (2008). In your face: facial metrics predict aggressive behavior in the laboratory and in varsity and professional hockey players. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 275, 2651–2656).
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Список многочисленных ассоциаций генаМАОАсм.: Charney, E., & English, W. (2012). Candidate genes and political behavior. American Political Science Review, 106, 1–34.
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Другой пример этого эффекта см.: Monterosso, J., Royzman, E. B., & Schwartz, B. (2005). Explaining away responsibility: Effects of scientific explanation on perceived culpability. Ethics & Behavior, 15, 139–158.
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443
Некоторые сторонники евгеники, такие как Генри Годдард, предположили, что слабоумие является рецессивным признаком. Проблема этих рассуждений состоит в том, что они дают аргументы против евгеники, как подметили некоторые критики того времени. Ведь, изъяв людей со слабоумием из генетического фонда, мы избавимся лишь от небольшой доли носителей признака (им необходимо быть гомозиготными, чтобы обладать фенотипом) и почти не повлияем на преобладание признака (подробнее см.: Paul D. B. Controlling human heredity: 1865 to the present. NY: Humanity Books, 1965. P. 68).
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Корреляции в разных исследованиях и в разных системах измерения варьировались между r = 0,3 и r = –0,5 (см.: Heine, S. J., Cheung, B. Y., & Ream, C. (28.02.2015). Genetic attributions underlie people’s attitudes towards criminal responsibility and eugenics. Symposium presentation at the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Long Beach, CA).
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Например, American International Biotechnology Services, тестировавшие людей на наличие спортивных генов, получили такое письмо (http://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/ProductsandMedicalProcedures/InVitroDiagnostics/ucm255348.htm).
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Комментарии одного из исследователей, изучавшего связь между геном ACTN3 и спортивными достижениями, см.: MacArthur, D. (30.11.2008). The ACTN3 sports gene test: What can it really tell you?Wired Magazine (http://www.wired.com/2008/11/the-actn3-sports-gene-test-what-can-it-really-tell-you/).
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См.: Webborn, N., Williams, A., McNamee, M., Bouchard, C., Pitsiladis, Y., Ahmetov, I., et al. (2015). Direct-to-consumer genetic testing for predicting sports performance and talent identification: Consensus statement. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 49, 1486–1491.
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Корреляции между одобрением ГМО и образованием в сфере генетики или общими знаниями о ней варьируются между 0,12 и 0,31 (Ream, C., Cheung, B. Y., & Heine, S. J. (2015). Correlations with GMO attitudes. Unpublished data. University of British Columbia).
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Hallman, W., Hebden, C., Cuite, C., Aquino, H., & Lang, J. (2004). Americans and GM food: Knowledge, opinion and interest in 2004. Publication number RR-1104–007. New Brunswick, NJ: Food Policy Institute, Cook College, Rutgers.
493
Критический анализ аргументов критиков ГМО см.: Lemaux, P. G. (2008). Genetically engineered plants and foods: A scientist’s analysis of the issues (Part I). Annual Review of Plant Biology, 59, 771–812. См. также: Saletan, W. (15.07.2015). Unhealthy fixation. The war against genetically modified organisms is full of fearmongering, errors, and fraud. Labeling them will not make you safer. Slate (http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2015/07/are_gmos_safe_yes_the_case_against_them_is_full_of_fraud_lies_and_errors.html).
494
Примеры нескольких подобных несуществующих исследований, якобы свидетельствующих об опасности ГМО, см.: Smith, J. M. (2007). Genetic roulette: The documented health risks of genetically engineered foods. Fairfield, IA: Yes! Books.
495
Séralini, G.-E., Clair, E., Mesnage, R., Gress, S., Defarge, N., Malatesta, M., et al. (2012). Long-term toxicity of a Roundup herbicide and a Roundup-tolerant genetically modified maize. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 50, 4221–4231.
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Hayes, A. W. (2014). Retraction notice to «Long-term toxicity of a Roundup herbicide and a Roundup-tolerant genetically modified maize». Food and Chemical Toxicology, 63, 244.
497
Wilson, R. D., Langlois, S., & Johnson, J. (2007). Mid-trimester amniocentesis fetal loss rate. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada, 194, 586–590.
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Sayres, L. C., & Cho, M. K. (2011). Cell-free fetal nucleic acid testing: A review of the technology and its applications. Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey, 66, 431–442. Norton, M. E., & Wapner, R. J. (2015). Cell-free DNA analysis for noninvasive examination of trisomy. The New England Journal of Medicine, 372, 1589–1597.
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Mansfield, C., Hopfer, S., & Marteau, T. M. (1999). Termination rates after prenatal diagnosis of Down syndrome, spinal bifida, anencephaly, and Turner and Klinefelter syndromes: A systematic literature review. Prenatal Diagnosis, 19, 808–812.
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Natoli, J. L., Ackerman, D. L., McDermott, S., & Edwards, J. G. (2012). Prenatal diagnosis of Down syndrome: A systematic review of termination rates (1995–2011). Prenatal Diagnosis, 32, 142–153.
501
http://www.omim.org.
502
Интересно, что 23andMe обнаружила у меня рецессивные гены, с которыми связаны фенилкетонурия и дефицит альфа-1 антитрипсина. В то время как секвенирование экзома, проведенное компанией Gentle, определило меня как носителя генов дефицита альфа-1 антитрипсина и синдрома Меккеля – Грубера. Маркер для последнего синдрома не исследовался ДНК-чипом 23andMe. Тем не менее обе компании обнаружили у меня один и тот же ОНП, rs5030860, который 23andMe связала с фенилкетонурией. Но Gentle проинформировала меня, что симптомы, обусловленные этим ОПН, не подходят под описание классической фенилкетонурии. Следовательно, даже такие, казалось бы, очевидные случаи, как выявление рецессивных болезней, вызывают разногласия.
503
https://www.jewishgenetics.org/dor-yeshorim/.
504
Об интересных дискуссиях по поводу Дор Йешарим см.: Gessen, M. (2008). Blood matters. New York, NY: Mariner Books.
505
Appel, J. M. (04.03.2009). Mandatory genetic testing isn’t eugenics, it’s smart science. Opposing Views (http://www.opposingviews.com/i/mandatory-genetic-testing-isn-t-eugenics-it-s-smart-science).
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Savulescu, J. (2001). Procreative beneficence: Why we should select the best children. Bioethics, 15, 413–426 (p. 415).
507
Hudson, K., & Scott, J. (2002). Public awareness and attitudes about genetic technology. Washington, DC: Genetics and Public Policy Center.
508
Wasserman, D., & Asch, A. (2006). The uncertain rationale for prenatal disability screening. AMA Journal of Ethics, 8, 1, 53–56.
509
Цит. по: Abraham, C. (07.01.2012). Unnatural selection: Is evolving reproductive technology ushering in a new age of eugenics?The Globe and Mail (http://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/parenting/unnatural-selection-is-evolving-reproductive-technology-ushering-in-a-new-age-of-eugenics/article1357885/?page=all).
510
Winkelman, W. D., Missmer, S. A., Myers, D., & Ginsburg, E. S. (2015). Public perspectives on the use of preimplantation genetic diagnosis. Journal of Assisted Reproductive Genetics, 32, 665–675.
511
Hudson, K., & Scott, J. (2002). Public awareness and attitudes about genetic technology. Washington, DC: Genetics and Public Policy Center.
512
Захватывающую историю Молли Нэш см.: Faison, A. M. (2005, Aug.). The miracle of Molly. 5280: The Denver Magazine (http://www.5280.com/2005/08/the-miracle-of-molly/).
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Rivard, L. (11.06.2013). Case study in savior siblings. Scitable by Nature Education (http://www.nature.com/scitable/forums/genetics-generation/case-study-in-savior-siblings-104229158).
514
Spriggs, M. (2002). Lesbian couple create a child who is deaf like them. Journal of Medical Ethics, 28, 283.
515
Baruch, S. (2008). Preimplantation genetic diagnosis and parental preferences: Beyond deadly disease. Houston Journal of Health Law & Policy, 8, 245–270.
516
Baruch, S., Kaufman, D., & Hudson, K. L. (2008). Genetic testing of embryos: Practices and perspectives of US in vitro fertilization clinics. Fertility & Sterility, 89, 1053–1058.
517
Winkelman, W. D., Missmer, S. A., Myers, D., & Ginsburg, E. S. (2015). Public perspectives on the use of preimplantation genetic diagnosis. Journal of Assisted Reproductive Genetics, 32, 665–675.
518
Savulescu, J. (2001). Procreative beneficence: Why we should select the best children. Bioethics, 15, 413–426.
519
Byrne, D. (1971). The attraction paradigm. New York: Academic Press.
520
Berscheid, E., & Dion, K. (1971). Physical attractiveness and dating choice: A test of the matching hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 7, 173–189. Kalick, S. M., & Hamilton, T. E. III (1986). The matching hypothesis reexamined. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 673–682.
521
Spar, D. L. (2006). The baby business. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
522
http://www.cryobank.com.
523
Цит. по: Plotz, D. (2006). The genius factory: The curious history of the Nobel prize sperm bank. New York, NY: Random House. P. 7.
524
Plotz, D. (2006). The genius factory: The curious history of the Nobel prize sperm bank. New York, NY: Random House.
525
Scheib, J. E. (1994). Sperm donor selection and the psychology of female mate choice. Ethology & Sociobiology (now Evolution and Human Behavior), 15, 113–129. Scheib, J. E., Kristiansen, A., & Wara, A. (1997). A Norwegian note on sperm donor selection and the psychology of female mate choice. Evolution and Human Behavior, 18, 143–149.
526
The Ethics Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine (2007). Financial compensation of oocyte donors. Fertility and Sterility, 88 (2), 305–309 (https://www.asrm.org/uploadedFiles/ASRM_Content/News_and_Publications/Ethics_Committee_Reports_and_Statements/financial_incentives.pdf).
527
Spar, D. L. (2006). The baby business. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
528
Levine, A. D. (2010, March – April). Self-regulation, compensation, and the ethical recruitment of oocyte donors. The Hastings Center Report, 40 (2), 25–36.
529
Levine, A. D. (2010, March – April). Self-regulation, compensation, and the ethical recruitment of oocyte donors. The Hastings Center Report, 40 (2), 25–36.
530
Некоторые примеры, связанные с этой истерией, см.: Nichol, D. (28.02.1997). Hello Dolly, the Scottish designer sheep. The Globe and Mail. A. 19; Cohen, R. (30.03.1997). Hello, Dolly. The Washington Post. W04; Kolata, G. (24.02.1997). With cloning of a sheep, the ethical ground shifts. New York Times. Front page; Anonymous (01.03.1997). Clone the clowns. The Economist, 341, 80. См. также: Nelkin, D., & Lindee, M. S. (2004). The DNA mystique. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. P. 197; Condit, C. M. (1999). The meanings of the gene. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. P. 145.
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Condit, C. M. (2010). Public attitudes and beliefs about genetics. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, 11, 339–359; Calnan, M., Montaner, D., & Horne, R. (2005). How acceptable are innovative health-care technologies? A survey of public beliefs and attitudes in England and Wales. Social Science & Medicine, 60, 1937–1948; Shepherd, R., Barnett, J., Cooper, H., Coyle, A., Moran-Ellis, J., Senior, V., et al. (2007). Towards an understanding of British public attitudes concerning human cloning. Social Science & Medicine, 65, 377–392; The Wellcome Trust (1998). Public perspectives on human cloning. Medicine Society Programme (www.wellcome.ac.uk).
532
Tachibana, M., Amato, P., Sparman, M., Gutierrez, N. M., Tippner-Hedges, R., Ma, H., et al. (2013). Human embryonic stem cells derived by somatic cell nuclear transfer. Cell, 153, 1228–1238.
533
Shin, T., Kraemer, D., Pryor, J., Liu, L., Rugila, J., Howe, L., et al. (2002). Brief communications. Cell biology: A cat cloned by nuclear transplantation. Nature, 415, 859. См. также: Francis, R. C. (2011). Epigenetics: The ultimate mystery of inheritance. New York, NY: W. W. Norton; and Yin, Sophia (21.06.2011). Cloning cats: Rainbow and CC prove that cloning wont resurrect your pet[Blog post] (http://drsophiayin.com/blog/entry/cloning-cats-rainbow-and-cc-prove-that-cloning-wont-resurrect-your-pet).
534
Ishino, Y., Shinagawa, H., Makino, K., Amemura, M., & Nakata, A. (1987). Nucleotide sequence of the iap gene, responsible for alkaline phosphatase isozyme conversion in Escherichia coli, and identification of the gene product. Journal of Bacteriology, 169, 5429–5433.
535
Английское название (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) дает аббревиатуру CRISPR. Прим. перев.
536
Английское название (CRISPR associated protein # 9) дает аббревиатуру Cas9. Прим. перев.
537
Barrangou, R., Fremaux, C., Deveau, H., Richards, M., Boyaval, P., Moineau, S., et al. (2007). CRISPR provides acquired resistance against viruses in prokaryotes. Science, 315, 1709–1712; Hsu, P. D., Lander, E. S., & Zhang, F. (2014). Development and applications of CRISPR-Cas9 for genome engineering. Cell, 157, 1262–1278; Jinek, M., Chylinski, K., Fonfara, I., Hauer, M., Doudna, J. A., & Charpentier, E. (2012). A programmable dual-RNA-guided DNA endonuclease in adaptive bacterial immunity. Science, 337, 816–821. ОбзорыCRISPR, написанные простым языком, см.: Pollack, A. (11.05.2015). Jennifer Doudna, a pioneer who helped simplify genome editing. New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/12/science/jennifer-doudna-crispr-cas9-genetic-engineering.html?smid=pl-share); Kahn, J. (09.11.2015). The Crispr quandary. New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/15/magazine/the-crispr-quandary.html?action=click&pgtype=Homepage®ion=CColumn&module=MostEmailed&version=Full&src=me&WT.nav=MostEmailed).
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Baltimore, D., Berg, P., Botchan, M., Carroll, D., Charo, R. A., Church, G., et al. (2015). A prudent path forward for genomic engineering and germline gene modification. Science, 348, 36–38.
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Liang, P., Xu, Y., Zhang, X., Ding, C., Huang, R., Zhang, Z., et al. (2015). CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing in human tripronuclear zygotes. Protein & Cell, 6 (5), 363–372.
540
Cyranoski, D., & Reardon, S. (22.04.2015). Chinese scientists genetically modify human embryos. Nature News (http://www.nature.com/news/chinese-scientists-genetically-modify-human-embryos-1.17378).
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Cressey, D., Abbott, A., & Ledford, H. (18.09.2015). UK scientists apply for licence to edit genes in human embryos. Nature News (http://www.nature.com/news/uk-scientists-apply-for-licence-to-edit-genes-in-human-embryos-1.18394).
542
Yang, L., Güell, M., Niu, D., George, H., Lesha, E., Grishin, D., et al. (2015). Genome-wide inactivation of porcine endogenous retroviruses (PERVs). Science, 350, 1101–1104.
543
Конференция была проведена в декабре 2015 года с целью разработки этических принципов исследований с использованием CRISPR (https://innovativegenomics.org/international-summit-on-human-gene-editing/).
544
Цитата из пятой серии документального сериалаDNA: Pandora’s Box, PBS (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qe4EW3AOgzs).
545
Metzl, J. F. (10.10.2014). The genetics epidemic: The revolution in DNA science and what to do about it. Foreign Affairs (https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2014-10-10/genetics-epidemic). Miller, G. (2013). Chinese eugenics. The Edge (http://edge.org/response-detail/23838).
546
Winkelman, W. D., Missmer, S. A., Myers, D., & Ginsburg, E. S. (2015). Public perspectives on the use of preimplantation genetic diagnosis. Journal of Assisted ReproductiveGenetics, 32, 665–675. Hudson, K., & Scott, J. (2002). Public awareness and attitudes about genetic technology. Washington, DC: Genetics and Public Policy Center.
547
Duster, T. (2003). Backdoor to eugenics. New York, NY: Routledge.
548
Schwartz, B., Ward, A., Monterosso, J., Lyubomirsky, S., White, K., & Lehman, D. R. (2002). Maximizing versus satisficing: Happiness is a matter of choice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1178–1197.
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Schwartz, B., Ward, A., Monterosso, J., Lyubomirsky, S., White, K., & Lehman, D. R. (2002). Maximizing versus satisficing: Happiness is a matter of choice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1178–1197.
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Power, R. A., Steinberg, S., Bjornsdottir, G., Rietveld, C. A., Abdellaoui, A., Nivard, M. M., et al. (2015). Polygenic risk scores for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder predict creativity. Nature Neuroscience, 18, 953–955; Andreasen, N. C. (1987). Creativity and mental illness: Prevalence rates in writers and their first-degree relatives. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 1288–1292.
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Brenner, S. (30.10.2009). The personalized genome: Do I want to know? Gairdner Foundation 50thAnniversary, Toronto, ON (http://mediacast.ic.utoronto.ca/20091030-GFS-P4/index.htm).
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Данные взяты из издания: Forer, B. R. (1949). The fallacy of personal validation: A classroom demonstration of gullibility. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 44, 118–123.
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Smoller, J. W., Paulus, M. P., Fagerness, J. A., Purcell, S., Yamaki, L. H., Hirshfeld-Becker, D., et al. (2008). Influence of RGS2 on anxiety-related temperament, personality, and brain function. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 298–308.
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https://www.23andme.com/you/community/thread/6235/.
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Pinker, S. (7.01.2009). My genome, my self. New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/11/magazine/11Genome-t.html?_r=0).
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См.: Collins, F. S. (2010). The language of life. New York, NY: Harper Perennial. P. 23.
557
Pinker, S. (07.01.2009). My genome, my self. New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/11/magazine/11Genome-t.html?_r=0).
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http://www.improbable.com/hair/gallery2/.
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Austin, J. C. (2010). Re-conceptualizing risk in genetic counseling: Implications for clinical practice. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 19, 228–234.
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Evans, D. G. R., Blair, V., Greenhalgh, R., Hopwood, P., & Howell, A. (1994). The impact of genetic counseling on risk perception in women with a family history of breast cancer. British Journal of Cancer, 70, 934–938. Smerecnik, C. M. R., Mesters, I., Verweij, E., de Vries, N. K., & de Vries, H. (2009). A systematic review of the impact of genetic counseling on risk perception accuracy. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 18, 217–228.
561
Цит. по: Sheldon Reed reported in Stern, A. M. (2012). Telling genes(p. 47). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
562
Rothman, B. K. (1986). The tentative pregnancy(p. 43). New York, NY: Viking.
563
Слова Дианы Пуналес-Морехон, цит. по: Stern, A. M. (2012). Telling genes(p. 40). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
564
Cheung, B. Y. (2016). Out of my control: The effects of perceived genetic etiology. Unpublished doctoral dissertation: University of British Columbia.
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Faraone, S. V., Smoller, J. W., Pato, C. N., Sullivan, P., & Tsuang, M. T. (2008). Editorial: The new neuropsychiatric genetics. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B (Neuropsychiatric Genetics), 147B, 1–2.
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Benjamin, D. J., Cesarini, D., van der Loos, M. J. H. M., Dawes, C. T., Koellinger, P. D., Magnusson, P. K. E., et al. (2012). The genetic architecture of economic and political preferences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 109, 8026–8031.
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Критику ценности исследований GWAS см.: Goldstein, D. B. (2009). Common genetic variation and human traits. New England Journal of Medicine, 360, 1696–1698.
568
Dobbs, D. (21.05.2015). What is your DNA worth?BuzzFeed (http://www.buzzfeed.com/daviddobbs/weighing-the-promises-of-big-genomics#.vjnnjJzwK).
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Wang, K., Zhang, H., Ma, D., Bucan, M., Glessner, J. T., Abrahams, B. S., et al. (2009). Common genetic variants on 5p14.1 associate with autism spectrum disorders. Nature, 459, 528–533.
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Bloomberg News (29.04.2009). Researchers identify autism genes that give clues to brain structure. New York Daily News (http://www.nydailynews.com/life-style/health/researchers-identify-autism-genes-give-clues-brain-structure-article-1.360034).
571
Weiss, L. A. (2009). A genome-wide linkage and association scan reveals novel loci for autism. Nature, 461, 802–808.
572
Список эффектов, с которыми был связан этот ген, см.: Charney, E., & English, W. (2012). Candidate genes and political behavior. American Political Science Review, 106, 1–34.
573
Величина воздействия гена на тягу к новизне равна d = 0,06, что соответствует R2чуть меньше 0,001 (см.: Kluger, A. N., Siegfried, Z., & Ebstein, R. P. (2002). A meta-analysis of the association between DRD4 polymorphism and novelty seeking. Molecular Psychiatry, 7, 712–717).
574
Эта цифра завышена потому, что существует не только два варианта числа повторов этой изменчивой области гена, от которой зависит величина его воздействия на передачу дофамина. Есть как минимум 10 вариантов количества повторов – от 2 до 11 (последнее встречается гораздо реже). Проблема в том, что в различных исследованиях разные варианты этих аллелей обозначаются как сильные или слабые в отношении влияния на передачу дофамина, что затрудняет их сравнение. Некоторые ученые только полиморфизм с 7 повторениями называют «сильным» и противопоставляют его всем остальным (например, Ebstein, R. P., et al. [1996]). Другие так же выделяют 6, 7 и 8 повторов (скажем, Swift et al. [2000]). В ряде исследований 2, 3, 4 и 5 противопоставляются 6, 7 и 8 (например, Vadenberg et al. [1997]). Еще ученые противопоставляют: 5 и 6–2, 3 и 4 (Ono et al. [1997]); 2, 3, 4, 5 и 6–7 и больше (Garcia, J. R., et al. [2010]); 2, 3 и 4–5, 6 и 7 (Tomitaka et al. [1999]); 2, 3 и 4–5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 и 11 (Chen et al., 1999); 7 и 2 – всем остальным (Reist et al. [2007]) и, наконец, 7 и 2–4 (Kitayama et al. [2014]). См.: Chen, C., Burton, M., Greenberger, E., & Dmitrieva, J. (1999). Population migration and the variation of dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) allele frequencies around the globe. Evolution and Human Behavior, 20, 309–324; Ebstein, R. P., et al. (1996). Dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) exon III polymorphism associated with the human personality trait of novelty seeking. Nature Genetics, 12, 78–80; Garcia, J. R., MacKillop, J., Aller, E. L., Merriwether, A. M., Wilson, D. S., & Lum, J. K. (2010). Associations between dopamine D4 receptor gene variation with both infidelity and sexual promiscuity. PLoS ONE5 (11): e14162; Kitayama, S., King, A., Yoon, C., Tompson, S., Huff, S., & Liberzon, I. (2014). The dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4) moderates cultural difference in independent versus interdependent social orientation. Psychological Science, 25, 1169–1177; Ono, Y., Manki, H., Yoshimura, K., Muramatsu, T., Mizushima, H., Higuchi, S., et al. (1997). Association between dopamine D4 receptor (D4DR) exon III polymorphism and novelty seeking in Japanese subjects. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 74, 501–503; Reist, C., Ozdemir, V., Wang, E., Hashemzadeh, M., Mee, S., & Moyzis, R. (2007). Novelty seeking and the dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4) revisited in Asians. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B, 144B, 453–457; Swift, G., Larsen, B., Hawi, Z., & Gill, J. (2000). Novelty seeking traits and D4 dopamine receptors. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 96, 222–223; Tomitaka, M., Tomitaka, S., Otuka, Y., Kim, K., Matuki, H., Sakamoto, K., et al. (1999). Association between novelty seeking and dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) exon III polymorphism in Japanese subjects. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 88, 469–471; Vandenbergh, D. J., Zonderman, A. B., Wang, J., Uhl, G. R., & Costa, P. T. Jr. (1997). No association between novelty seeking and dopamine D4 receptor (D4DR) exon III seven repeat alleles in Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging participants. Molecular Psychiatry, 2, 417–419.
575
Более подробно см.: Murray, A. B., Carson, M. J., Morris, C. A., & Beckwith, J. (2010). Illusions of scientific legitimacy: misrepresented science in the direct-to-consumer genetic-testing marketplace. Trends in Genetics, 26 (11), 459–461.
576
Autism Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network Surveillance Year 2010. Principle Investigators (2014). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 63 (SS02), 1–21.
577
Berg, J. M., & Geschwind, D. H. (2012). Autism genetics: Searching for specificity and convergence. Genome Biology, 13, 247–263.
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Sanders, S. J., Ercan-Sencicek, A. G., Hus, V., Luo, R., Murtha, M. T., Moreno-De-Luca, D., et al. (2011). Multiple recurrent de novo CNVs, including duplications of the 7q11.23 Williams syndrome region, are strongly associated with autism. Neuron, 70, 863–885; Levy, D., Ronemus, M., Yamrom, B., Lee, Y. H., Leotta, A., Kendall, J., et al. (2011). Rare de novo and transmitted copy-number variation in autistic spectrum disorders. Neuron, 70, 886–897; Gilman, S. R., Iossifov, I., Levy, D., Ronemus, M., Wigler, M., & Vitkup, D. (2011). Rare de novo variants associated with autism implicate a large functional network of genes involved in formation and function of synapses. Neuron, 70, 898–907; Anney, R., Klei, L., Pinto, D., Almeida, J., Bacchelli, E., Baird, G., et al. (2012). Individual common variants exert weak effects on the risk for autism spectrum disorders. Human Molecular Genetics, 21, 4781–4792; Kong, A., Frigge, M. L., Masson, G., Besenbacher, S., Sulem, P., Magnusson, G., et al. (2012). Rate of de novo mutations and the importance of father’s age to disease risk. Nature, 488, 471–475; Chan, J. A. (2015). The emerging picture of autism spectrum disorder: Genetics and pathology. Annual Review of Pathology: Mechanisms of Disease, 10, 111–144.
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Weintraub, K. (2011). Autism counts. Nature, 479, 22–24.
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См. Gruber, J. (2013). The unfulfilled promise of genomics. In S. Krimsky & G. Gruber (Eds.)Genetic explanations(p. 270–282). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
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Joseph, J., & Ratner, C. (2013). The fruitless search for genes in psychiatry and psychology. In S. Krimsky & G. Gruber (Eds.)Genetic explanations(p. 96–97). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. См. также: Chaufan, C. (2007). How much can a large population study on genes, environments, and their interactions and common diseases contribute to the health of the American people?Social Science & Medicine, 65, 1730–1741.
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Comfort, N. (29.01.2014). Genetic determinism: Why we never learn – and why it matters[Blog post] (http://genotopia.scienceblog.com/387/genetic-determinism-why-we-never-learn-and-why-it-matters/).
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Pearson, H. (2009). Human genetics: One gene, twenty years. Nature, 164–169, 460.
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Amaral, M. D. (2015). Novel personalized therapies for cystic fibrosis: Treating the basic defect in all patients. Journal of Internal Medicine, 277, 155–166.
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Цитата со с. 165 Pearson, H. (2009). Human genetics: One gene, twenty years. Nature, 460, 164–169.
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О причинах медленных темпов развития методов лечения на основе генома см.: Palmer, B. (30.09.2013). Where are all the miracle drugs?Slate Magazine (http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/human_genome/2013/09/human_genome_drugs_where_are_the_miracle_cures_from_genomics_did_the_genome.1.html); Wade, N. (12.06.2010). A decade later, genetic map yields few new cures. New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/13/health/research/13genome.html?_r=0).
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Chapman, P. B., Hauschild, A., Robert, C., Haanen, J. B., Ascierto, P., Larkin, J., et al. (2011). Improved survival with vemurafenib in melanoma with BRAF V600E mutation. New England Journal of Medicine, 364, 2507–2516.
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O’Brien, S. G. (2003). Imatinib compared with interferon and low-dose cytarabine for newly diagnosed chronic-phase chronic myeloid leukemia. New England Journal of Medicine, 348, 994–1004.
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Rodin, J., & Langer, E. J. (1977). Long-term effects of a control-relevant intervention with the institutionalized aged. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 897–902.
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Ornish, D., Brown, S. E., Scherwitz, L. W., Billings, J. H., Armstrong, W. T., Ports, T. A., et al. (1990). Can lifestyle changes reverse coronary heart disease? The Lifestyle Heart Trial. The Lancet, 129–133, 336.
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Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group (2002). Reduction in the incidence of Type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. New England Journal of Medicine, 346, 393–403.
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Smyth, J. M., Stone, A. A., Hurewitz, A., & Kaell, A. (1999). Effects of writing about stressful experiences on symptom reduction in patients with asthma or rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 281, 1304–1309.
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Creswell, J. D., Myers, H. F., Cole, S. W., & Irwin, M. R. (2009). Mindfulness meditation training effects on CD4+ T lymphocytes in HIV-1 infected adults: A small randomized controlled trial. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 23, 184–188.
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Spiegel, D., Bloom, J. R., Kraemer, H. C., & Gottheil, E. (1989). Effect of psychosocial treatment on survival of patients with metastatic breast cancer. The Lancet, 334, 888–891; Goodwin, P. J., Leszcz, M., Ennis, M., Koopmans, J., Vincent, L., Guther, H., et al. (2001). The effect of group psychosocial support on survival in metastatic breast cancer. The New England Journal of Medicine, 345, 1719–1726.
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Kluger, J. (02.12.2010). Too many one-night stands? Blame your genes. Time (http://healthland.time.com/2010/12/02/too-many-one-night-stands-blame-your-genes/); Firth, N., & Macrae, F. (03.12.2010). The Love-Cheat Gene: One in four born to be unfaithful, claim scientists. Daily Mail (http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1334932/The-love-cheat-gene-One-born-unfaithful-claim-scientists.html).
596
Прекрасное обсуждение темы «ученых, которые обнаружили ген, отвечающий за…» приведено в лекции доктора Стива Джонса Nature or Nurture (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1ksP34GYwbY).
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Conrad, P. (2002). Genetics and behavior in the news: Dilemmas of a rising paradigm. In J. S. Alper, C. Ard, A. Asch, J. Beckwith, P. Conrad, & L. N. Geller (Eds.)The double-edged helix: Social implications of genetics in a diverse society. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
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Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press; Landau, M. J., Meier, B. P., & Keefer, L. A. (2010). A metaphor-enriched social cognition. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 1045–1067.
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О метафорах, применяемых для описания генов, см.: Condit, C. M. (1999). The meanings of the gene. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press; Francis, R. C. (2011). Epigenetics. New York, NY: W. W. Norton; Sapolsky, R. (1997, Oct.). A gene for nothing. § 6. Discover (http://discovermagazine.com/1997/oct/agenefornothing1242); Hubbard, R., & Wald, E. (1997). Exploding the gene myth: How genetic information is produced and manipulated by scientists, physicians, employers, insurance companies, educators and law enforcers. Boston, MA: Beacon Press; Keller, E. F. (2000). The century of the gene. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
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Изучение менделевской теории с большей вероятностью приводит к большему генетическому детерминизму, чем знакомство с концепциями о взаимодействии генов с окружающей средой (Radick, G. (2016). Teach students the biology of their time. Nature, 293, 533).
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См.: Walker, I., & Read, J. (2002). The differential effectiveness of psychosocial and biogenetic causal explanations in reducing negative attitudes toward «mental illness». Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 65, 313–325; Boysen, G. A., & Gabreski, J. D. (2012). The effect of combined etiological information on attitudes about mental disorders associated with violent and nonviolent behaviors. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 31, 852–877; Cheung, B. Y., & Heine, S. J. (2016). Efforts to reduce essentialist responses to genetic accounts. Unpublished data. The University of British Columbia.
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Ream, C., Cheung, B. Y., & Heine, S. J. (2016). The role of genetics education on genetic essentialism. Unpublished data. The University of British Columbia; Castéra, J., & Clément, P. (2014). Teachers’ conceptions about the genetic determinism of human behaviour: A survey in 23 countries. Science & Education, 23, 417–443.
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Обзор литературы по теме см.: Nisbett, R. E. (2015). Mindware: Tools for smart thinking. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.
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Примеры см.: Devine, P. G., Forscher, P. S., Austin, A. J., & Cox, W. T. L. (2012). Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention. Journal ofExperimental Social Psychology, 48, 1267–1278.
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Несколько примеров приведены в изданиях: Beaman, A. L., Barnes, P. J., Klentz, B., & McQuirk, B. (1978). Increasing helping rates through informational dissemination: Teaching pays. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 4, 406–411; Johns, M., Schmader, T., & Martens, A. (2005). Knowing is half the battle: Teaching stereotype threat as a means of improving women’s math performance. Psychological Science, 16, 175–179.
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