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Adamy, J. 2007. Yum uses McDonald’s as guide in bid to heat up sales. Wall Street Journal, December 13, A21.
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Teece, D. 1986. Profiting from technological innovation: Implications for integration, collaboration, licensing and public policy. Research Policy 15, 285–305.
4
S. P. Schnaars provides numerous case histories of late entrants winning against pioneers. See Schnaars, S. P. 1994. Managing imitation strategies: How late entrants seize markets from pioneers. New York: Free Press.
5
Connor, C. 2008. Interview with author, October 24.
6
See, for instance, Schnaars, Managing imitation strategies.
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Mansfield, E., Schwartz, M., and Wagner, S. 1981. Imitation costs and patents: An empirical study. Economic Journal 91 (December), 907–918; Levin, R., et al. 1984. Survey research on R&D appropriability and technological opportunity. Working Paper Part 1: Appropriability. New Haven, CT: Yale University; Burns, G. 1995. A Fruit Loop by any other name… BusinessWeek, June 26, 73–76, as cited in Collins-Dodd, C., and Zaichkowsky, J. L. 1999. National brand responses to brand imitation: Retailers versus other manufacturers. Journal of Product and Brand Management 8, 2, 96–105; Belson, K. 2008. Hertz tosses some car keys into the ring, battling Zipcar. Wall Street Journal, December 17, B7.
8
The Business of Innovation. CNBC. October 5, 2009.
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The World Bank. 2008. Global economic prospects: Technology diffusion in the developing world. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
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Agarwal, R., and Gort, M. 2001. First-mover advantage and the speed of competitive entry, 1887–1986. Journal of Law and Economics 44, 1, 161–177 (cite on page 168).
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The World Bank. 2008. Global economic prospects; Agarwal and Gort, First-mover advantage and the speed of competitive entry, 1887–1986; Mansfield, E. 1985. How rapidly does new industrial technology leak out. Journal of Industrial Economics 34, 2, 217–223; Mansfield, E. 1961. Technical change and the rate of imitation. Econometrica 20, 4 (October), 741–766; Mansfield, Schwartz, and Wagner. Imitation costs and patents: An empirical study.
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Parvis, E. N. 2002. The pharmaceutical industry: Access and outlook. Huntington, NY: Nova Science Publishers; Bollier, D. 2002. Silent theft: The private plunder of our common wealth. New York: Routledge, 167; Pan American Health Organization Staff. 2007. Health in the Americas. Washington, DC: PAHO; World Health Generic Pharmaceutical Association. 2007. IMS National Sales Perspective. Arlington, VA: Gph A; Frank, R. G, and Seiguer, E. 2003. Generic drug competition in the US: Business briefing. 2003. Pharmagenerics, 65–70; Harris, G. 2002. For drug makers, good times yield to a new profit crunch. Wall Street Journal, April 30, A1.
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Bowers, P. M. 1989. Boeing aircraft since 1916. London: Putnam Aeronautical Books.
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Drucker, P. F. 2001. The essential Drucker. New York: Harper Business.
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Coughlan, P. J. 2004. The golden age of home video games: From the reign of Atari to the rise of Nintendo. Case 9-704-487. Boston: Harvard Business School; Christensen, Ñ. M. 1997. The innovator’s dilemma: When new technologies cause great firms to fail. Boston: Harvard Business School Press; Corts, K. S., and Freier, 2003. A brief history of the browser wars. Case 9-703-517. Boston: Harvard Business School; Bryman, A. 1997. Animating the pioneer versus late entrant debate: An historical case study. Journal of Management Studies 34, 3, pp. 415–438; Lewin, A., and Massini, S. 2003. Knowledge creation and organizational capabilities of innovating and imitating firms. Paper presented at the Druid Summer Conference on Creating, Sharing and Transferring Knowledge, Copenhagen, June 12–14.
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Knowledge@Wharton. 2006. Where will Indian Drug Companies be in Five Years? Everywhere — If They Innovate. Report prepared by Knowledge@Wharton in collaboration with Bain & Company, www.bain.com/bainweb/pdfs/cms/marketing/bain%20India%20 Pharma%20FINAL%203-21-06.pdf.
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Nordhaus, W. D. 2004. Schumpeterian profits in the American economy: Theory and measurement. Discussion Paper 1457. New Haven, CT: Cowles Foundation.
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Bryman, Animating the pioneer versus late entrant debate: An historical case study.
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Bessen, J., and Maskin, E. 2000. Sequential innovation, patents and imitation. Working Paper. Cambridge, MA: Department of Economics, MIT; Schwartz, M. A. 1978. The imitation and diffusion of industrial innovations. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press; Mansfield, Schwartz, and Wagner, Imitation costs and patents: An empirical study; Levin et al., Survey research on R&D appropriability and technological opportunity.
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Tsai, T., and Johnson, I. 2009. As giants step in, Asustek defends a tiny PC. Wall Street Journal, May 2, B1.
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Nordhaus, Schumpeterian profits in the American economy: Theory and measurement; Bayus, B. L., Erickson, G., and Jacobson, R. 2003. The financial rewards of new product introductions in the personal computer industry. Management Science 49, 2, p. 198; Mansfield, E., Rapoport, J., Schnee, J., Wagner, S., and Hamburger, M. 1971. Research and innovation in the modern corporation. New York: Norton.
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Levitt, T. 1966. The management of reverse R&D or how to imitate your competitor’s products before it’s too late. Harvard Business Review, September — October, 33–37; cite on 33.
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Utterback, J. M. 1994. Mastering the dynamics of innovation. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
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Lewis, M., Rai, A., Forquer, D., and Quinter, D. 2007. UPS and HP: Value creation through supply chain partnerships. Case Study 907D02. London: Ivey School of Business; Hout, Thomas M. 2006. HP’s computer business: Can it compete? Case HKU558. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong, Asia Case Research Center.
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Rollins, Kevin. 2007. The Wal-Mart of High Tech? Interview by Bill Breen. Fast Company. Mansueto Ventures LLC. http://www.fastcompany.com/magazine/88/dell-rollins.html.
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Carr, N. G. 2006. How to be a smart innovator. Wall Street Journal, September 11, R7.
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Moritz, S. 2008. Michael Dell not enough to boost Dells. CNNMoney.com, February 28.
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Loftus, P. 2008. Pfizer eyes bigger push into generics. Dow Jones Newswires, October 16.
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Rockoff, J. D. 2009. Drug firm leaves R&D to others. Wall Street Journal, March 2, B6.
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Nowell, L. 2009. Interview with author, January 12.
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Cloyd, G. 2009. Interview with author, February 4.
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Clark, K. 2008. Interview with author, December 11.
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Cloyd, Interview with author.
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Nowell, Interview with author.
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Nunes, P. F., Mulani, N. P., and Gruzin, T. J. 2007. Leading by imitation. Outlook 1, 1–9.
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Yando, R., Seitz, V., and Zigler, E. 1978. Imitation: A developmental perspective. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Elbaum.
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Michael Tomasello, as cited in Hurley, S., and Chater, N. 2007. Introduction: The importance of imitation. In Perspectives on imitation: From neuroscience to social science, eds. S. Hurley and N. Chater. Cambridge, MA: MIT.
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Diamond, J. 2005. Guns, germs and steel. New York: Norton.
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Ibid., 407.
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Rosenberg, N. 1976. Perspectives on technology. New York: Cambridge University Press; Rosenberg, N. 1982. Inside the black box: Technology and economics. New York: Cambridge University Press, cited in Schmitz, J. A. 1989. Imitation, entrepreneurship, and long-run growth. Journal of Political Economy 97, 3, 721–739; Pennington, A. Y. 2006. Copy that: In business, imitation is more than a form of flattery. Entrepreneur Magazine, March.
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Mokyr, J. 1990. The lever of riches. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 188, cited in Berg, M. 2002. From imitation to invention: Creating commodities in eighteenth century Britain. Economic History Review LX, 1, 1–30.
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Muckelbauer, J. 2003. Imitation and invention in antiquity: An historical-theoretical revision. Rhetorica 3, 61–88.
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Berg, M. 2002. From imitation to invention: Creating commodities in eighteenth century Britain, The Economic History Review, New Series, 55, 1, 1–30.
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Ibid.
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From an abstract of Sargent, W. R. 2008. Send Us No More Dragons: Chinese Porcelains and Decorative Arts for the Western Market. Lecture at Ohio State University, October 3.
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Westney, E. 1987. Imitation andinnovation: The transfer of Western organizational patterns to Meiji Japan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
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Tomasello, M., Kruger, A. C., and Ratner, H. H. 1993. Cultural learning. Behavioral Brain Sciences 16, 495–552; Zentall, Imitation: Definitions, evidence, and mechanisms; Hurely, S. 2004. Imitation, media violence, and freedom of speech. Philosophical Studies 117, 165–218; Hurley and Chater, Introduction: The importance of imitation, 1; Byrne, R. W. 2003. Imitation as behavior parsing. Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences 358, 1431, 529–536; Zentall, T., and Akins, C. 2001. Imitation in animals: Evidence, function and mechanisms. In Avian visual cognition, ed. R. G. Cook. Comparative Cognition Press [online], 2001, http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/avc/akins/; Brown, J. H., and Kodric-Brown, A. 1979. Convergence, competition and mimicry in a temperate community of hummingbird-pollinated flowers. Ecology 60, 5, 1022–1035; W. H. L. 1870. Imitation. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 1, 11, 43.
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Bonner, J. T. 1980. The evolution of cultures in animals. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; Sirot, E. 2001. Mate-choice copying by females: The advantages of a prudent strategy. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 14, 418–423; Losey, G. S., Stanton, F. G., Tlecky, Ò. M., and Tyler, W. L. 1986. Copying others: an evolutionary stable strategy for mate choice: a model. American Naturalist 128, 5, 653–664.
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Ludlam, T. 2008. Interview with author, May 8.
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Harley and Chater, Introduction: The importance of imitation; Blackmore, S. 1999. The òåòå machine. Oxford: Oxford University Press; Zentall, Imitation: Definitions, evidence, and mechanisms; Alex the African Grey. 2007. Economist, September 22, 103; Iacoboni, M. 2008. Mirroring people. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
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Yando, R., Seitz, V., and Zigler, E. Imitation: A developmental perspective; Bandura, A. 1977. Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall; for a sociological view, see Goffman, E. 1959. The presentation of self in everyday life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday; Michael Tomasello, as cited in Hurley and Chater, Introduction: The importance of imitation; Iacoboni, Mirroring people; Meltzoff, A., and Moore, M. K. 1994. Imitation, memory and the representation of persons. Infant Behavior and Development 17, 83–99; Wohlschlager, A., Gattis, M., and Bekkering, H. 2003. Action generated and action perception in imitation: An instance of the ideomotor principle. Philosophical Transactions Review Society of London B358, 501–515, cited in Gfallese, V. 2003. The manifold nature of interpersonal relations: The quest for a common mechanism. Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences, 358, 1431, 517–528.
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Yando, Seitz, and Zigler, Imitation: A developmental perspective; Byrne, R. W. 2005. Social cognition: imitation, imitation, imitation. Current Biology 15, 13, R4985–00; Whiten, A. 2005. The imitative correspondence problem: Solved or sidestepped? In Perspectives on imitation, eds. Hurley and Chater, 220; Harley and Chater, Introduction: The importance of imitation, 2; Byrne, Imitation as behavior parsing; Rizzolatti, G., and Sinigaglia, C. 2008. Mirrors in the brain: How our minds share actions and emotions. Trans. F. Anderson. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Gombrich, E. H. 2002. Art and illusion: A study in the psychology of pictorial representation. New York: Phaidon; Danto, A. C. 1981. The transfiguration of the commonplace: A philosophy of art. Cambridge: Harvard University Press; Olson, E. 1952. The poetic method of Aristotle. In English Institute Essays, ed. A. S. Downer. New York: English Institute, which notes that Aristotle was more appreciative of imitation; Jenkins, I. 1942. Imitation and expression in art. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 2, 5, 42–52; Harkness, B. 1954. Imitation and theme. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 12, 4, 499–508; Coomaraswamy, A. K. 1945. Imitation, expression, and participation. Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 3, 11/12, 62–72, cite on 64.
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Child, A. 1952. History as imitation. Philosophical Quarterly 2, 8 (July), 193–207.
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Berg, M. 2002. From imitation to invention: Creating commodities in eighteenth century Britain.
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Galef, B. 2005. Breathing new life into the study of imitation by animals: What and when do chimpanzees imitate? In Perspectives on imitation, eds. Hurley and Chater, 296; Hurley and Chater, Introduction: The importance of imitation; Meltzoff, A. N., and Docety, J. 2003. What imitation tells us about social cognition: A rapprochement between developmental psychology and cognitive neuroscience. Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences 358, 1431, 491–500; Byrne, R. W., and Russon, A. E. 1998. Learning by imitation: A hierarchical approach. Behavioral and Brain Science 21, 667–721; Iacoboni, Mirroring people; Byrne, R. W. 2005. Detecting, understanding, and explaining imitation by animals. In Perspectives on imitation, eds. Hurley and Chater, 1–52; Zentall, Imitation: Definitions, evidence, and mechanisms.
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Byrne, Imitation as behavior parsing; Byrne, Social cognition: Imitation, imitation, imitation; Meltzoff, A. N., and Prinz, W., eds., 2002. The imitative mind: Development, evolution, and brain bases. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Chaminade, T. J., Grezes, J., and Meltzoff, J. 2002. A PET exploration of neural mechanisms involved in reciprocal imitation. Neurolmage 15, 265–272; Kymissis, E., and Poulson, C. L. 1990. The history of imitation in learning theory; the language acquisition process. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 54, 113–127; Hurely, Imitation, media violence, and freedom of speech; Yando, Seitz, and Zigler, Imitation: A developmental perspective.
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Jensen, M. 2000. A theory of the firm: Governance, residual claims, and organizational forms. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
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Alchian, A. A. 1977. Economic forces at work. Indianapolis: Liberty Press; Bikchandani, S., Hirschleifer, D., and Welch, I. 1992. A theory of fads, fashion, custom and cultural change as informational cascades. Journal of Political Economy 100, 5, 992–1026; Ê. H. Schlag, Why imitate, and if so, how. Journal of Economic Theory 78, 130–156.
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Kandori, M. G., Mailath, G., and Rob, R. 1993. Learning, mutation, and long run equilibria in games. Econometrica 61, 29–56; Gregoire, P., and Robson, A. 2003. Imitation, group selection, and cooperation. International Game Theory Review 5, 3, 229–247; De Marchi, N., and Van Miegroet, H. J. Ingenuity, preference and the pricing of pictures: The Smith-Reynolds connection. In Economic engagements with art, eds. D. De Marchi and Ñ. C. W. Goodwin. Durham: University of North Carolina Press, 379–412, cited in Berg, From imitation to invention: Creating commodities in eighteenth century Britain.
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Rosenberg, N. 1976. Plrspectives on technology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
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Iacoboni, Mirroring people; Hurley and Chater, Introduction: The importance of imitation.
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Hurley and Chater, eds., Perspectives on imitation: From neuroscience to social science.
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Cowan and Foray, The economics of codification and the diffusion of knowledge.
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Cowan and Foray, The economics of codification and the diffusion of knowledge, 611.
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Cowan, David, and Foray, The explicit economics of knowledge codification and tacitness.
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Neisser, The imitation of man by machine. There is a common confusion in the strategy literature between tacit and complex knowledge. Complex knowledge is especially amenable to codification, and in fact its very complexity requires codification as a way to deal with multiple variables and relationships.
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Ludlam, T. 2008. Interview with author, May 8.
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Diamond, Guns, germs and steel, 407.
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Cho, D. S., Kim, D. J., and Rhee, D. K. 1998. Latecomer strategies: Evidence from the semiconductor industry in Japan and Korea. Organization Science 9, 4, 489–505.
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Mansfield, E., Schwartz, M., and Wagner, S. 1981. Imitation costs and patents: An empirical study. Economic Journal 91 (December), 907–918; Levin, R. C, Klevorick, A. K., Nelson, R. R., and Winter, S. G. 1987. Appropriating the returns from industrial research and development. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 3, 783–831. Another study reports that patents increased imitation costs by 30 percent for pharmaceuticals, 20 percent for chemicals, and 7 percent for electronics. See Mansfield, Schwartz, and Wagner, Imitation costs and patents: An empirical study.
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You, Ê., and Katayama, S. 2005. Intellectual property rights protection and imitation: An empirical examination of Japanese FDI in China. Pacific Economic Review 10, 4, 591–604.
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Gillen, D., and Lall, A. 2004. Competitive advantage of low cost carriers: Some implications for airports. Journal of Air Transport Management 10, 41–50. Bill Diffenderffer, the former head of Skybus, argues that Southwest no longer enjoys a wage advantage and that most of its profits in recent years are attributed to its fuel hedging program; Diffenderffer, W. 2008. Interview with author, October 23.
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Bryant, A. 1995. Continental is dropping «Lite» service. New York Times, April 14.
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Diffenderffer, W. 2008. Interview with author, October 23.
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Gittell, The Southwest Airlines way.
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Beirne, M. 2008. Ted’s Dead. Brandweek.com, June 5.
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Knowledge@Wharton. 2006. What Makes Southwest Airlines Fly.
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Ibid.; Michaels, D. 2009. Airline sector’s woes slam a highflier. Wall Street Journal, July 2, A8.
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Speed of Song. 2004. Reveries.com. 2004.
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Doganis, R. 2001. The airline business in the 21st century. London: Routledge; Morrell, P. 2005. Airlines within airlines: An analysis of US network airline responses to low cost carriers. Journal of Air Transport Management 11, 303–312.
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Diffenderffer, W. 2008. Interview with author, October 23.
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Carey, S. 2007. Canada’s Westjet flies high. Wall Street Journal, January 24.
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Wingfield, K. 2002. My stupid business. Wall Street Journal, September 15–16, A9.
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Renegade Ryanair. 2001. BusinessWeek, May 14.
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Wal-mart with wings. 2006. BusinessWeek, November 27.
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Renegade Ryanair. 2001.
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Ibid.; Michaels, Airline sector’s woes slam a highflier, A8.
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Ibid.
289
Øåíêàð Î. Êèòàé. Âåê XXI. — Êèåâ: Áàëàíñ Áèçíåñ Áóêñ, 2005.
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