Примечания книги: Спотыкаясь о счастье - читать онлайн, бесплатно. Автор: Дэниел Гилберт

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Перевод Б. Пастернака. – Прим. пер.

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Перевод М. Зенкевича. – Прим. пер.

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Деннет Д.С. Виды психики: на пути к пониманию сознания. – М., 1994. – Прим. ред.

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Хотя дети начинают говорить о будущем в возрасте около двух лет, они не вполне понимают, что это такое, пока не достигнут четырех. См.: Povinelli D.G., Simon B.B. Young Children’s Understanding of Briefly Versus Extremely Delayed Images of the Self: Emergence of the Autobiographical Stance // Developmental Psychology 34:188–94, 1998; Nelson K. Finding One’s Self in Time // The Self Across Psychology: Self-Recognition, Self-Awareness, and the Self Concept, eds. J.G. Snodgrass and R.L. Thompson. – New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1997. P. 103–116. – Прим. авт.

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Финеас действительно возил за собой лом, куда бы ни ехал, и был бы, наверное, доволен тем, что и лом этот, и его череп обрели пристанище на постоянной выставке в Гарвардском анатомическом музее. – Прим. авт.

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Современные авторы считают случай Гейджа доказательством важности лобной доли, хотя в те времена, когда это произошло, о нем думали иначе. См.: Macmillan M.B. A Wonderful Journey Through Skull and Brains: The Travels of Mr. Gage’s Tamping Iron // Brain and Cognition 5: 67–107, 1986. – Прим. авт.

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Поскольку речь зашла об ударах током, самое время объяснить, что подобные психологические эксперименты всегда проводятся в строгом согласии с этическими правилами, установленными Американской психологической ассоциацией и должны быть одобрены университетским комитетом до осуществления. Добровольцев в обязательном порядке предупреждают о любой опасности, которая способна угрожать их здоровью и чувствам, и они имеют возможность прервать эксперимент, когда пожелают, не боясь никаких взысканий. Если в целях эксперимента им дают какую-то ложную информацию, по окончании исследования обязательно говорят правду. Короче говоря, на самом деле все мы очень хорошие люди. – Прим. авт.

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Перевод Т.Л. Щепкиной-Куперник.

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После того как эта статья была опубликована, по меньшей мере одна пара взрослых сросшихся близнецов захотела разделиться. Оба умерли во время операции (См.: A Lost Surgical Gamble // New York Times, 9 July 2003, 20). – Прим. авт.

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Субъективные состояния можно определять только в терминах их предпосылок или других субъективных состояний, но то же самое верно и для физических объектов. Если бы мы не определяли физический объект (микстуру от кашля, например) в терминах его субъективных состояний («мягкая, липкая и сладкая») или в терминах любого другого физического объекта («состоит из кукурузного сиропа, сахарного сиропа, ванили и яичного белка»), мы не могли бы его определить вообще. Все определения достигаются сравнением вещи, которую мы хотим определить, с вещами, которые находятся в той же онтологической категории (например, физические объекты с физическими объектами) или соотнесением их с вещами другой онтологической категории (физические объекты с субъективными состояниями). Третьего способа еще никто не нашел. – Прим. авт.

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Перевод В. Микушевича. Цит. по: Поуп А. Поэмы. Опыт о человеке. – М.: Художественная литература, 1988. – Прим. пер.

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Стилистический оборот, состоящий в подчеркнутом соединении противоположностей, логически исключающих друг друга, например, «сладкая скорбь». – Прим. пер.

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Фрейд З. Недовольство культурой // Фрейд З. Психоаналитические концепции агрессивности. В 2 кн. – Ижевск: Издательство Удмуртского университета, 2004. Кн. 1. – Прим. ред.

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Паскаль Б. Мысли. – СПб.: Азбука, 1999. – Прим. пер.

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Проблема его «машины счастья» популярна среди ученых, которые обычно забывают рассмотреть три момента. Во-первых, кто говорит, что никто не захотел бы оставаться в контакте с машиной? Мир полон людей, которые хотят счастья и нисколько не заботятся о том, каковы его предпосылки. Во-вторых, те, кто заявляет, что они не согласились бы оставаться в контакте, возможно, уже пребывают в нем. В конце концов, в условия входит забвение этого факта. И в-третьих, никто не может действительно ответить на этот вопрос, поскольку требуется сначала вообразить будущее состояние, в котором человек не будет сознавать того самого вопроса, который обдумывает сейчас. См.: Nozick R. The Examined Life. – New York: Simon & Schuster, 1989. P. III. – Прим. авт.

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Прототип современной телевизионной трубки. – Прим. пер.

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Перевод Т.Л. Щепкиной-Куперник. – Прим. пер.

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Также интересно отметить, что простой акт понимания эмоции может иногда устранить ее. См.: Hariri A.R., Bookheimer S.Y., Mazziotta J.C. Modulating Emotional Response: Effects of a Neocortical Network on the Limbic System // NeuroReport 11: 43–48, 2000; Lieberman M.D. et al. Two Captains, One Ship: A Social Cognitive Neuroscience Approach to Disrupting Automatic Affective Processes (неопубликованный материал, UCLA, 2003). – Прим. авт.

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Грин Г. Конец одного романа. – М.: Иностранка, 2002. – Прим. ред.

20

Англ. experience. – Прим. пер.

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Англ. awareness. – Прим. пер.

22

Экономист XIX в. Фрэнсис Эджуорт называл это устройство «гедониметр». См.: Edgeworth F.Y. Mathematical Psychics: An Essay on the Application of Mathematics to the Moral Sciences. – London: Kegan Paul, 1881. – Прим. авт.

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Альбом группы The Beatles (1968). – Прим. ред.

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«Feelings, nothing more than feelings» – первая строчка песни Морриса Альберта (1975). – Прим. ред.

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Перевод Т.Л. Щепкиной-Куперник. – Прим. пер.

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Американский профсоюзный лидер конца XIX в. – Прим. пер.

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Eel – угорь, peel – кожура, heel – каблук. The eel was on the orange – угорь был на апельсине, the eel was on the shoe – угорь был на ботинке. – Прим. пер.

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Баум Л.Ф. Удивительный волшебник из страны Оз. – М.: РИПОЛ классик, 1998. – Прим. пер.

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Локк Д. Эссе о человеческом понимании // Избранные философские произведения: В 3 т. – М.: Соцэкгиз, 1960. Т. 2. – Прим. пер.

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Кант И. Критика чистого разума. – М.: Наука, 1998. – Прим. пер.

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Интересно, что способность к этому увеличивается с возрастом, но начинает ухудшаться в старости. См.: Ligneau-Herve’ C., Mullet E. Perspective-Taking Judgments Among Young Adults, Middle-Aged and Elderly People // Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied 11: 53–60, 2005. – Прим. авт.

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Кант И. Критика чистого разума. – М.: Эксмо, 2014. – Прим. пер.

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Перевод М. Зенкевича. – Прим. пер.

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Конан Дойль А. Серебряный. – Таллин: Скиф Алекс, 1992. – Прим. пер.

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Конан Дойль А. Серебряный. – Таллин: Скиф Алекс, 1992. – Прим. пер.

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Бэкон Ф. Novum organum // Собрание сочинений: В 2 т. – М.: Мысль, 1977. Т. 1. – Прим. пер.

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Там же.

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Это исследование было описано в статье, где приводились и другие примеры исследований, в ходе которых людей просили предсказать, какие чувства они испытают, если: а) космический шаттл «Колумбия» взорвется и все астронавты на борту погибнут; б) в результате войны Соединенных Штатов с Ираком будет свергнут Саддам Хусейн. Удивительно то, что исследования проводились в 1998 г. – за пять лет до того, как эти события действительно произошли. Хотите верьте, хотите нет. – Прим. авт.

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Конан Дойль А. Серебряный. – Таллин: Скиф Алекс, 1992. – Прим. пер.

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Перевод П. Мелковой. – Прим. пер.

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Популярная актриса тех лет. – Прим. пер.

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Почтовая служба Federal Express. – Прим. пер.

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Сеть магазинов самообслуживания. – Прим. пер.

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Фантастические фильмы 1950-х гг. – Прим. ред.

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Кажется, все уверены, что Кельвин сказал это в 1895 г., но, честное слово, я не сумел найти источников, это подтверждающих. – Прим. авт.

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Артур Кларк. Очертания будущего. Между прочим, Кларк определил «престарелость» как возраст между 30 и 45 годами. – Прим. авт.

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«Ура смерти». – Прим. пер.

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Насколько мне известно, слово «предчувствование» (prefeel) впервые было использовано как название песни Арто Линдсеем в его альбоме Prize 1999 г. – Прим. авт.

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Перевод А.И. Курошевой. – Прим. пер.

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Лакофф Дж., Джонсон М. Метафоры, которыми мы живем. – М.: ЛКИ, 2008. – Прим. ред.

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Люди – не единственные животные, которые ценят разнообразие. Эффекту Кулиджа положил, видимо, начало тот случай, когда президент Калвин Кулидж с женой посетили ферму. Старший техник похвастался призовым петухом: «Он может целыми днями без передышки заниматься сексом». «Правда? – удивилась миссис Кулидж. – Пожалуйста, расскажите об этом моему мужу». Президент повернулся к технику и спросил: «Петух всегда спаривается с одной и той же курицей?» «Нет, – ответил тот, – с разными». На что президент сказал: «Правда? Пожалуйста, расскажите об этом моей жене». История, скорее всего, вымышленная, но сам факт имеет место – самцов млекопитающих, которые уже утомлены спариванием, может заново возбудить новая самка. См.: Wilson J., Kuehn R., Beach F. Modifications in the Sexual Behavior of Male Rats Produced by Changing the Stimulus Female // Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 56: 636–644, 1963. На самом деле у быков, сперму которых собирает специальный механизм, сокращается промежуток между эякуляцией, если этот механизм переставляют в другое место. Hale E.B., Almquist J.O. Relation of Sexual Behavior to Germ Cell Output in Farm Animals // Journal of Dairy Science 43: Supp., 145–167, 1960. – Прим. авт.

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Стоит отметить, что если мы изменим наши предположения (особенно относительно скорости привыкания), тогда обмен тарелками в тот самый момент, когда ваше любимое блюдо теряет свое преимущество, может стать плохой стратегией для максимизации удовольствия надолго. См.: Hernstein R.J. The Matching Law: Papers in Psychology and Economics, eds. H. Rachlin and D.I. Laibson. – Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997. – Прим. авт.

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Пользуюсь случаем сказать, что моя кажущаяся пристрастность по отношению к почтальонам выдает всего лишь мое инфантильное чувство юмора. Пример полностью вымышлен и не имеет целью бросить тень на всех почтальонов и замужних женщин, которых я когда-либо знал. – Прим. авт.

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Чалдини Р. Психология влияния: Убеждай. Воздействуй. Защищайся. – СПб.: Питер, 2013. – Прим. ред.

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Перевод Б. Пастернака. – Прим. пер.

56

Вольтер. Кандид // Философские повести. – М.: Правда, 1985. – Прим. пер.

57

Зигмунд и Анна Фрейд называли это системой «защитных механизмов», и с тех пор почти каждый психолог высказывается о ней и дает ей другое название. Последнюю сводку литературы о психологической защите см.: Paulhus D.L., Fridhandler B., Hayes S. Psychological Defense: Contemporary Theory and Research // Handbook of Personality Psychology, eds. R. Hogan, J. Johnson and S. Briggs. – San Diego: Academic Press, 1997. P. 543–79. – Прим. авт.

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Американский баскетболист. – Прим. пер.

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Неутешителен тот факт, что в последующих исследованиях как состоявшиеся ученые, так и те, кто еще не закончил обучение, демонстрировали ту же тенденцию: предпочитали метод, который приводил к предпочитаемым заключениям. См.: Koehler J.J. The Influence of Prior Beliefs on Scientific Judgments of Evidence Quality // Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 56: 28–55, 1993. – Прим. авт.

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Эта тенденция может иметь разрушительные последствия. К примеру, в 2004 г. Разведывательный комитет сената пришел к выводу, что ЦРУ обеспечило Белый дом неверной информацией относительно иракского оружия массового поражения, которая и привела к вторжению США в Ирак. Согласно этому отчету, тенденция подгонять факты «заставила аналитиков и руководителей Разведывательного комитета интерпретировать неоднозначные данные как убедительно доказывающие существование этого оружия, и игнорировать данные о том, что Ирак его не имеет» (см.: Schrader K.P. Report: War Rationale Based on CIA Error // Associated Press, 9 July 2004). – Прим. авт.

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Перевод Т. Гнедич. – Прим. пер.

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«Касабланка», реж. Майкл Кёртис (1942). – Прим. авт.

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Чалдини Р. Психология влияния. Убеждай. Воздействуй. Защищайся. – СПб.: Питер, 2013. – Прим. ред.

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Китс Д. Письмо Джорджу и Томасу Китсам // Стихотворения. Письма. – Л.: Наука, 1986. – Прим. пер.

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Перевод Е. Н. Бируковой. – Прим. пер.

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Коршун, килт, капуста. – Прим. пер.

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Около 14 градусов по Цельсию. – Прим. пер.

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15 градусов по Цельсию. – Прим. пер.

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Шекспир У. Ричард II. Перевод М. Донского. – Прим. пер.

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Перевод Т. Гнедич. – Прим. пер.

71

Ливингстон Дж., Эванс Р. Que sera, sera (1956). – Прим. авт.

72

Половина американцев поменяла место жительства в пятилетний период (1995–2000), что свидетельствует: средний американец переезжает примерно раз в десять лет. См.: Berkner B., Faber C.S. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Geographical Mobility, 1995 to 2000: Bureau of the Census. – Washington, D.C., 2003. – Прим. авт.

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Средний работник рекламы детских товаров меняет место работы десять раз в период от своих 18 до 30 лет, что свидетельствует: средний американец за свою жизнь меняет его по меньшей мере столько же раз. См.: Bureau of Labor Statistics. Number of Jobs Held, Labor Market Activity and Earnings Growth Among Baby Boomers: Results from More Than Two Decades of a Longitudinal Survey // Bureau of Labor Statistics news Release, U.S. Department of Labor. – Washington, D.C.: 2002. – Прим. авт.

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По проектам Бюро переписи Соединенных Штатов в грядущие годы 10 % американцев не вступят в брак вообще, 60 % вступят один раз и 30 % вступят по меньшей мере дважды. См.: Kreider R.M., Fields J.M. Number, Timing and Duration of marriages and Divorces, 1996 // U.S. Bureau of Census. – Washington, D.C., 2002. – Прим. авт.

75

Эффект «спада предельной полезности» уменьшается, когда мы тратим деньги на вещи, к которым у нас меньше вероятности адаптироваться. См.: Scitovsky T. The Joyless Economy: The Psychology of Human Satisfaction. – Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976; Van Boven L., Gilovich T. To Do or to Have? That Is the Question // Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85: 1193–1202, 2003; Frank H. How Not to Buy Happiness // Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 133: 69–79, 2004. Не все экономисты верят в возрастание предельной полезности: Easterlin R.A. Diminishing Marginal Utility of Income? Caveat Emptor // Social Indicators Research 70: 243–326, 2005. – Прим. авт.

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Смит А. Исследование о природе и причинах богатства народов. – М.: Ось-89, 1997. – Прим. пер.

77

Некоторые теоретики доказывают, что в развитии общества имеет место циклический процесс, в ходе которого люди понимают, что счастье за деньги не купишь, но через поколение вновь об этом забывают. См.: Hirschman A.O. Shifting Involvements: Private Interest and Public Action. – Princeton. N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1982. – Прим. авт.

78

Это также лучший способ предсказать наше будущее поведение. К примеру, люди переоценивают вероятность совершения ими акта благотворительности, но правильно оценивают вероятность совершения его другими. Что свидетельствует: если бы мы основывали предсказания своего поведения на том, что, как мы видим, делают другие, мы попадали бы в точку. См.: Epley N., Dunning D. Feeling ‘Holier Than Thou’: Are Self-Serving Assessment Produced by Errors in Self– or Social Prediction? // Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79: 861–875, 2000. – Прим. авт.

79

Слово hogwash в английском языке имеет два значения: «помои» и «вздор, пустая болтовня». – Прим. пер.

80

Перевод Е.Н. Бируковой. – Прим. пер.

81

Miller – мельник, smith – кузнец. – Прим. пер.

82

В действительности не вполне ясно, что именно Бернулли имел в виду под «полезностью», потому что он не дал определения, и смысл этой концепции обсуждается на протяжении уже трех или четырех веков. Поначалу этим термином обозначали способность предметов потребления вызывать положительные субъективные переживания у тех, кто их потребляет. Экономист Фердинандо Галиани, например, в 1750 г. определил utilita как «способность вещи доставлять нам счастье» (Galiani F. Della moneta [1750]). В 1789 г. философ Джереми Бентам определил ее как «то качество во всяком объекте, которое обыкновенно приносит прибыль, пользу, удовольствие, благо или счастье». (Bentham J. // An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, eds. J.H. Burns and H.L.A. Hart [1789; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996]). Современные экономисты избегают подобных определений – не потому, что у них имеются лучшие, а потому, что не любят говорить о субъективных переживаниях. По сути, «полезность» становится гипотетической абстракцией, критерием выбора. Если вам это напоминает словесное жонглирование – добро пожаловать в наш клуб. Подробнее историю этого понятия см.: Georgesku-Roegen N. Utility and Value in Economic Thought // New Dictionary of the History of ideas, vol. 4. – New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2004, P. 450–458; Kahneman D., Wakker P.P., Sarin R. Back to Bentham? Explorations of Experienced Utility // Quarterly Journal of Economics 112: 375–405, 1997. – Прим. авт.

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Современные экономисты не согласились бы с этим утверждением, потому что экономика в настоящее время придерживается мнения, от которого психология отказалась еще полвека назад, а именно: наука о человеческом поведении может игнорировать то, что люди чувствуют и говорят, и полагаться единственно на их действия. – Прим. авт.

1

В примечаниях содержатся ссылки на научные труды, подтверждающие высказанные мною мысли. Если вас не интересуют источники и раздражает необходимость постоянно заглядывать в конец книги, тогда не сомневайтесь: единственное важное примечание – то, которое вы сейчас читаете.

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